Ethics: October 2023 UPSC Current Affairs | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

Ethical Aspects of Data Manipulation in Research

Why in News?

Recently, allegations of fraud in the behavioral sciences emerged as independent investigators exposed data manipulation involving Francesca Gino, a Harvard Business School professor found guilty of research misconduct for studies on honesty and unethical behavior.

• One such example is the case of Annamalai University in Tamil Nadu, where at least 200 academic papers published by researchers contain plagiarized text, manipulated images, and fudged data in which the university’s vice-chancellor was also an author.

Why do Researchers Commit Misconduct?

• Root Causes of Research Misconduct:
  • Researchers have strong motivations to produce groundbreaking findings and results supporting alternative hypotheses, largely due to incentives. However, these substantial incentives have, in some cases, led to shoddy and even fabricated work.
  • Scientific misconduct has a long history, from the infamous Piltdown Man hoax in 1912 ( a fraudulent attempt to fill in the missing link between primate and man) to more recent cases like Diederik Stapel. It persists in various forms in different fields, even today.
• Motivators and Contributing Factors to Misconduct:
  • The low risk of detection by reviewers and the mentoring styles of research supervisors can play a role in misconduct. The lack of comprehensive policies at the national and institutional levels to penalize misconduct are also cited as contributors to the problem.
• Systematic Causes of Misconduct:
  • Funding and Pressure Relief: One approach is to ensure adequate funding and reduce the pressure on researchers. This could involve allocating a portion of research grants for quality-control activities, allowing investigators to conduct more comprehensive and efficient investigations.
  • Support for Replication Studies: Supporting replication studies, which verify the results of other studies, is another valuable method. Financial aid for replication studies, in the form of cash rewards, can incentivize researchers to conduct such studies.

What are the Ethical Effects of Misconduct?

• Long term Consequences:
  • Scientific misconduct, regardless of its scale, can have far-reaching consequences, especially when influential figures in a field are involved.
  • For instance, leaders in a scientific field, such as Dr. Gino, whose work serves as the foundation for others, can potentially damage years of research when their misconduct comes to light.
• The Widespread Implications of Misconduct:
  • It's not limited to a single case; instead, it can cast a shadow over numerous papers and findings that relied on the compromised work, endangering the integrity of years of scientific inquiry.
• Lack of Transparency in Scientific Publishing:
  • Scientific publishing, beyond its role in research and academia, plays a significant role in perpetuating research misconduct, often without adequate investigation or correction of signs of misconduct in published papers.
  • Recent events, like Nature retracting a paper due to data discrepancies, highlight the lack of transparency in the publication process.

How Should Misconduct be Dealt With?

• Addressing Scientific Misconduct with the OSF:
  • One innovative approach to tackling scientific misconduct is the Open Science Framework (OSF). This framework aims to uphold scientific integrity by advocating for practices like pre-registration, which involves establishing a study's hypotheses, methods, and analyses before conducting it.
  • The OSF is a free, open platform to support research and enable collaboration established by the Center for Open Science (COS), a non-profit organization.
• Ambitious 'SCORE' Project:
  • Furthermore, the OSF team has launched the 'Systematizing Confidence in Open Research and Evidence' (SCORE) project, which aspires to enhance research credibility through automated tools that generate rapid and accurate confidence scores for research claims.
• Involve More Stakeholders:
  • Dealing with fraud in the scientific community involves various methods. However, these methods can be inconsistent across institutions. This results in researchers who are willing to cooperate still facing unofficial forms of punishment, which should be addressed by involving different stakeholders.

Way Forward

• In response to the absence of institutional efforts, some scientists have taken it upon themselves to scrutinize collaborative work, distinguishing between credible and flawed research to avoid tarnishing all their work.
• However, a broader reevaluation is necessary, particularly among influential figures in science. The idealized notion that science is inherently rigorous and self-correcting needs to be revised, recognizing its complexity and the need for enhanced methods and norms.
• This requires incorporating technology and incentives to promote continuous self-assessment and improvement, making it a standard practice rather than a response to 'special' circumstances.

Case Study -1

Ebola Outbreak and Experimental Drugs
The Ebola outbreak in Nigeria has affected thousands of people in a short span of time and infected many others. There is no vaccine or treatment available to cure the disease. You are the head of the health department of one of the countries that have been severely hit by the epidemic. While there is no treatment currently available for the disease, an experimental drug is being used in some other country. This drug has shown positive results and consequently some of the patients have also managed to recover from the disease. However, it is not yet clear whether the relief came due to the drug alone, or otherwise.
Given the high mortality rate of the disease and its rapid spread, other countries affected by this disease have already given a go-ahead for the mass production of this experimental drug. But some health experts are sceptical about the efficacy of the drug and have even warned against its use as it may result in some deadly side-effects.
Bring out and discuss the above case.
Q. What would you do in the above situation? Give reasons.
Sol: 

The ethical issues involved in this case are:

• Responsibility of the leader to make crucial decisions in a crisis situation even with the risks involved.
  
• Right to medical treatment of affected persons.
  
• Threat to life and likely side effects of the experimental drug and the opportunity cost of not taking the risk of trying the drug.
  
• The veracity of the advice against the drug’s use by health experts in face of some positive results of the drug effects from other countries.
  
• Right of human being against medical experimentation in face of likely side effect hazards.
  
• The responsibility of the state to protect its citizens from health hazards by investing in medical Research and development.
  

In the crisis situation the aim of any action taken must be

• To protect the lives of as many people as possible.
  
• To ensure that any medication doesn't have long-term hazards, i.e., it should not bypass long term effects just to have short term gains.
  
• To prevent the spread of the disease by quarantining the affected persons to remote and secure locations.
  
• Thus, I would take the following measures:
  
• Call an urgent meeting of health experts to discuss the drug, the positive results and also discuss the measures to contain the disease.
  
• Based on their recommendations, I would raise awareness among people through the media who would themselves undertake precautionary measures at the individual level.
  
• I would consult if the drug can be tested on patients in their terminal stage while also taking the consent of their family and giving financial compensation in case of death. Thus, I would try to get the drug tested. In case of positive results, I would ask doctors to administer the drug gradually and record all the symptoms. In case of any harmful symptom, I will stop its use.
  
• Meanwhile, I would send a health expert team to the other country where the drug tested positive to study and verify how it worked.
  
• In case of drug failing at experimenting stage, my efforts would be directed to check the spread of disease while ensuring all medical support to affected patients.

Case Study - 2

Ethnic Conflict and Refugee Settlement
You are the officer in charge of a refugee settlement team in a multilateral humanitarian organization. There is an ethnic conflict in the nearby border area and as a result, many people are affected and displaced. The economically better-off neighbouring countries have accommodated the streams of migrants with financial support from your organization. The violence in the region has increased recently and the influx of people seeking refuge has grown exponentially. With countries following protectionist policies the refugees are left in a vulnerable situation. You are asked to represent the organization for the settlement of refugees with neighbouring countries, who also happen to be a powerful economic bloc. However, they refuse any more accommodation on the following grounds:

1. Drainage of resources in face of subdued economic conditions.
2. Domestic political repercussions.
3. Rehabilitation will encourage more influx.
4. Permanency of settlement in face of better prospects than at home.

Q. What are the counter-arguments that can be cited to convince the countries for an immediate solution? Suggest some long term measures as well that could be followed to address the problem.
Sol:
As an officer overseeing refugee settlement related issues in a multilateral organisation, my immediate responsibility is to ensure a safe haven for all refugees and also ensure that they have access to basic needs i.e. food, clothing, shelter and also medical aid.

• In face of stiff opposition or reluctance by the countries to accept the immigrant refugees I would propose the following:
• Continued financial support from the multinational organisation in resettlement and rehabilitation of the refugees.
• Being economically powerful they can absorb temporary economic shocks while continuing to fulfill their role as a responsible nation.
• Utilize the inflow of refugees as cheap labour by providing them training and thus reap economic benefits of cheap labour.
• By refusing to accept refugees, they will be possibly presented in a bad light in the world by humanitarian organisations and civil activists. Economic factors like international trade is also based on perception and credibility of sovereign nations. Thus, in the long run their international relations might get affected.
• Assure them that the problem is only temporary and in the future following the restoration of peace the refugees will return to their homeland.
• Cite examples of other nations who are also rehabilitating refugees.
• The problem though triggered by an immediate crisis, i.e., ethnic conflict, demands long-term solutions as it involves cost of life and livelihood, displacement and associated social tension, fragmentation and also inter-generational consequences. I would suggest certain long-term measures as:
• Peacefully explore the permanent safe havens in other yet developing/Island nations with financial support from the organisation.
• Explore the possibility of settling refugees in areas unaffected by the civil war (in the same country) so that on the restoration of peace they can be resettled back.
• Starting negotiations with countries like Japan (with a predominant ageing population) to accept some refugees. They can also provide work visa for 10-15 years and also provide employment in the short term.
• Support the country facing the ethnic conflict in its rehabilitation and resettlement efforts.
• Highlight the refugee's issue at global forums, i.e., at the United Nations and seek assistance.
• Use the internet and print media to raise awareness about the pitiable conditions of the refugees.

Case Study - 3

Right to be Forgotten
Ramesh, once a struggling theatre artist was accused and later freed from rape charges, which the jury found out to be ill conceived and wrongly targeted. Not able to handle the situation, he changed profession and moved on. Many years later, while his closest friends know about the incident, his co-workers do not. One day, out of curiosity, he surfs his personal records on the internet, and to his surprise, finds that the results reflect an old report in a local newspaper about the rape charges he faced.
Ramesh is upset; after all these years, he would like to be able to disclose the event only to whomever he wants. He has been informed about the decision of the European Court of Justice, which allows individuals to submit requests to a search engine to remove certain results from searches on their names, and citing the same, requests the search engine and media outlet to remove the results.
Valid arguments can be advanced for making the ‘Right to be Forgotten’ a fundamental right? What those arguments could be? What limitations, if any, can it be subjected to? Should there be any obligations on the search engines regarding cases, which are no longer relevant, as the one mentioned above?
Sol: 
The issues involved in the above case are:

• The right to a life with dignity of an individual who has been absolved of all the charges in the past.
• The responsibility of INTERNET search engines to present unbiased information even of past events while not infringing the right to privacy of an individual.
• Fear of Ramesh to be dragged into his past on disclosure of facts through INTERNET and his right to be forgotten.
• The application of extra-territorial laws in India.
• The tendency in Indian society to stereotype individuals based on distorted facts or through misinterpretation of facts.
• Based on the above mentioned issues, arguments can be presented to make Right to be forgotten a fundamental right. However, infringement of fundamentals right rests on actions by individuals or by the state. Thus, no action can be taken for stereotyping, hatred or biasness. 
• Also for legal recording and for administrative purposes in future, records of settled cases must remain in the public domain. Further people under Right to Information can easily extract such information when they require to do so. Thus internet can't be barred from providing information. However, in settled cases, they can add this information along with related data so that anyone who surfs for the information must have full information on any incident. 
• But in his private capacity Ramesh can apply to the government for making the above changes with respect to page authors or search engines.

Case Study - 4

Environmental Impact Assessment of a Project in Naxal Area
You are leading a survey team that has been assigned to carry out environmental impact assessment of a project proposed in a Naxal area. Members have been allotted a remote village each to conduct surveys and ascertain the response of residents.
You are responsible not to disclose the identity of the villagers. During the review of survey findings you find some responses that are contradictory. You accompany the concerned surveyor to that village next day for verification. You carry ground check from the list of respondents and ask them for clarification of the response they had given earlier.
Some of them seem awestruck and even deny any knowledge of the survey being conducted, you try to verify this from other residents of the village who were also surveyed and get similar replies. This raises serious doubts about the veracity of the survey process.

• What are the ethical issues involved in the situation?
• As a team leader accountable for the credibility of the survey and working on a hard time frame, what are the possible options before you? List their merits and demerits.
• Giving reasons, state the course of action you would follow.

Sol:

The respondents backtracking from their earlier responses point to certain possibilities:

• They might be intimidated by the Naxals to not cooperate with the entire exercise.
• The survey process was not done comprehensively. Therefore, only a few villagers knew about it.
• The concerned survey official has distorted the facts.
• As a team leader one must review the survey data while also ensuring that the overall purpose of any social impact assessment is fulfilled by properly educating the villagers of its potential benefits in the future.

The ethical issues involved are:

• Falsification of data by surveyors that defeats the very purpose of the entire exercise.
• Integrity of the concerned official.
• Accountability of the team leader in ensuring the credibility of the survey.

As a team leader accountable for the entire process, the possible course of actions is:

• Redo the survey in the concerned village under the personal supervision and also with the help of police forces to tackle any Naxal threat.
• This may instil confidence in the villagers to overcome their fear and give true responses. However, fearing Naxal backlash in the future they may still not cooperate. Thus, an unnecessary administrative cost and time would be wasted.
• Extrapolate responses of other villages and publish the report.
• Villages may exist in similar conditions in the area and doing the above will save valuable time. But such assumption goes against the very spirit of conducting a survey that treats every village as unique.
• Pressurize the surveyor to reveal the true fact. This process will be applicable only in the case where the official might be lying. Else it would lower the overall morale of the entire team. Also request higher authorities to send a new team with credibility and efficiency.
• Report the matter to higher officials and seek their advice. Experienced seniors may provide valuable inputs. However, this is time taking and it also represents a tendency of dereliction of duty.

I would inform the higher officials of the discrepancy and keep it on record. First, I would ask the surveyor to explain the discrepancy and would try to verify through cross-questioning. Upon verification, I would request the District Magistrate to provide police protection to the area during the survey and also alert local intelligence to collect ground information of Naxals trying to contact villagers. 

• I would then try to persuade the villagers of full government support while keeping the District Magistrate in confidence. Thus the survey would be redone and the costs involved would be reported based on all recorded official communications and expenses.