Ethnic Conflict | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Defining Ethnicity

• Ethnicity is a concept derived from the Greek word "ethnos," which means "nation." However, it is not synonymous with nationhood. Instead, ethnicity refers to a group of people who share common characteristics related to race, descent, and culture. An ethnic group is defined by its shared history and common attributes such as race, tribe, language, religion, dress, and diet.
• Ethnicity is a dynamic and fluid category, shaped by common economic, political, social, and cultural interests within a diverse society. It can also serve as a tool for mobilization to achieve social, economic, and political objectives. Ethnicity is not about the superiority or inferiority of cultures, as all cultures are equally valid. The Constitution of India recognizes this by declaring the country a secular state, where distinctions based on caste, creed, region, language, or religion are not permitted.
  

Characteristics of Ethnicity

Here are some key characteristics of ethnicity:

• Ascriptive Identities: Ethnicity is closely related to ascriptive identities such as caste, language, religion, and region.
• Power Dynamics: Conflicts can arise between ethnic groups when there is inequality in power-sharing.
• Social Mobilization and Territoriality: Ethnicity is socially mobilized and often confined to specific territories. It requires a numerically sufficient population and a pool of symbols that depict distinctiveness.
• Reference Group and Deprivation: Ethnic groups have a reference group that serves as a basis for relative deprivation, whether real or imagined.
• Development and Ethnic Movements: Being excluded from the developmental process or experiencing uneven development can lead to ethnic movements.
• Political Creation: Ethnicity in Indian politics is not only a result of grassroots discontent but also a creation of vested political interests.
• Interest Group Politics: Ethnic groups often engage in interest group politics, using ethnicity to make demands for changes in their status or economic well-being.
• Central Political Focus: The interaction between different ethnic groups ultimately revolves around the central political question of who gets what, when, and how.
• Identity Mobilization: Ethnic groups use criteria like religion, language, or caste to mobilize and create a distinct identity that separates them from others.
• Fluidity of Boundaries: The delineation of ethnic boundaries is dynamic and depends on specific conditions at any given moment, leading to shifts in identity.
• Plurality of Identities: While a singular identity may be projected, the reality is often a plurality of identities that is more widespread than it appears.

Ethnic Group

• An ethnic group is a distinct segment of the population within a larger society, characterized by cultural differences that set them apart. Members of an ethnic group share common ties of race, nationality, or culture. They often perceive themselves as unique due to their shared ancestry, cultural heritage, language, religion, and economic interests. Despite claims of uniformity, ethnic groups are internally stratified.
• In a diverse society like India, ethnic, caste, and class groupings often overlap, making it essential to understand their continuity and distinctions. The history of a country's communities, including their origins and migrations, is crucial for comprehending its civilization. India's population exceeds 1.25 billion, with thousands of castes and communities, including Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Parsis, Jains, and various tribal groups, each with its own marriage and social interaction rules.

Nature of Ethnic Conflict

• Ethnic groups may sometimes find themselves in opposition due to conflicting interests, leading to communalism. Larger groups might dominate national resources, leaving smaller communities feeling deprived of their rightful claims. This can create situations of distrust and distance between different ethnic groups, which are often referred to as "primordial collectivities."
• One perspective on the root cause of ethnic strife is "relative deprivation," where perceived inequalities in resource distribution, access, and cultural recognition lead to conflict. Ethnic conflict can also arise from the distinction between "insiders" and "outsiders," where members of different linguistic, regional, or cultural groups see each other as distinct in the national context.
• India is a poly-ethnic society with distinctions based on race, caste, language, religion, and territory. Ethnic conflict can manifest in various forms, including communal riots, where violence erupts between different religious or ethnic communities. The role of communal propaganda, rumors, and the involvement of state and non-state actors in inciting violence are significant factors in the escalation of communal tensions.

Communalism

• Communalism is a complex phenomenon in India's socio-political landscape, especially in the context of economic policy and globalization. It is often viewed through various lenses, such as ideology, false consciousness, competition for resources, and an instrument of ruling class politics. W.C. Smith's definition of communalism emphasizes the distinction between religious groups and their social, political, and economic unity.
• Communalism has a long history in India, affecting socio-cultural and political life in numerous ways. Bipin Chandra argued that communalism is a false consciousness rooted in historical processes, where no real conflict between Hindus and Muslims existed. Gyanendra Pandey suggested that communalism reflects colonialist knowledge, characterized by suspicion and hostility between different religious communities.

Communal Violence

• Communal violence, manifesting as riots, pogroms, or terrorism, is often a dramatic outcome of communal tensions, rooted in the spread of communalism. While communal riots give credibility to communal ideologies, it is the communal politics and ideology preached during normal times that form the basis for such violence. Communal riots are seen as symptoms of the communalization of society and politics.
• Communal violence has been more prevalent in urban areas, where deprived and poor individuals are often involved. However, it is communal propaganda, rumor-mongering, and mobilization that play a significant role in inciting violence. The involvement of state machinery in communal violence, as seen in incidents like the Gujarat riots, has raised concerns about state-sponsored violence against minority communities.
• The secular, non-communal vision of the Indian state has been challenged by the rise of communalism. Political parties have often succumbed to communal pressures, and the capture of political organizations by cultural and sectarian groups has become common. New political organizations with communal agendas have emerged, influencing electoral politics.

Measures to Contain Ethnic and Communal Violence

• To reverse the tide of communalism, it is essential to de-communalize society and address the communalization of the state and political elite. Education plays a crucial role in preventing communal feelings, and the teaching of history should be based on scientific principles to counter communal ideologies. The media can also contribute by reporting events in a manner that soothes communal tensions.
• Peace Committees comprising individuals from different religious communities can work together to promote goodwill and reduce fear and hatred in riot-affected areas. Strong and impartial interventions by the state, including police and army measures, can prevent or minimize riots. The role of law enforcement agencies should be non-communal, ensuring impartiality in dealing with communal violence.
• Political communalism, which is more dangerous than religious communalism, needs to be addressed. The state should confront communal elements and ensure that extremist groups are dealt with by law enforcement. Secular values should be promoted, and the real problems faced by religious minorities, such as employment and literacy, should be addressed. Efforts must be made to remove suspicions between communities, and a common civil code should be established.
• In summary, a multipronged approach is required to contain communal tensions and foster communal harmony. The majority of religious communities in India do not support communal violence, and efforts should focus on preventing politicians from exploiting communal sentiments for narrow gains.