Ethnicity and Identity Movements | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Understanding Ethnicity and Ethnic Movements in India

• To grasp the concept of ethnic movements, it is essential to first understand what we mean by ethnicity. Ethnicity refers to the identification of a group of people based on shared criteria or markers such as culture, race, language, religion, customs, history, and economic experiences. For a group to be considered ethnic, there needs to be a mobilization into collective action aimed at achieving specific demands.
• The number and type of markers that define an ethnic group can vary based on the choice of factors by the group or its leadership. Scholars in India typically view ethnic mobilization as involving multiple attributes like language, religion, culture, history, and economy. For instance, mobilization based on language is seen as linguistic mobilization, while caste-based mobilization is considered dalit or backward caste mobilization.
• In contrast, scholars from the American and European traditions may categorize mobilization based on a single attribute, such as language or religion, as ethnic mobilization. They often do not differentiate between movements and ethnic mobilization. For example, Paul R. Brass uses the terms "ethnic" and "communal" mobilization interchangeably.
• Dipankar Gupta, in his book The Context of Ethnicity: The Sikh Identity in a Comparative Perspective, distinguishes between communalism and ethnicity. He argues that ethnic mobilization is linked to the nation-state, involving territory and sovereignty, while communal mobilization is confined to conflicts between communities and the government. Gupta suggests that group identities are not permanent and can shift between ethnic and communal identities over time.

Ethnic Movements in Post-Independence India

• Post-independence India saw significant ethnic movements across various regions, which often took the form of demands for regional autonomy, separate states, or even secession.
• These movements questioned the nation-state model established by independent India, which was based on the assumption that identities formed along ascriptive lines such as language, caste, tribe, and religion would eventually diminish.

2. Examples of Ethnic Movements:

• A. Nagaland: The rejection of the Indian Constitution by the Nagas led to secessionist movements.
• B. Tamil Nadu: The Dravidian ethnic movement, rooted in language, culture, and religion, initially called for secession but later shifted to demands for state autonomy. The imposition of Hindi was seen as a threat to Dravidian identity.
• C. Andhra Pradesh: The demand for a separate state of Andhra Pradesh gained momentum after the hunger strike of P. Srinivasulu, leading to the linguistic reorganization of states in 1953.
• D. Punjab: The Punjabi Suba movement, led by the Akali Dal, sought a separate state for Sikhs based on regional, religious, and economic factors. The movement involved both constitutional means and agitation.
• E. Jammu and Kashmir: Movements in this region were driven by language, religion, and geographical differences, with some groups advocating for secession or merger with Pakistan.
• F. Shiv Sena: Opposition to South Indians in Mumbai reflected regional and ethnic tensions.

3. Central Government Response:

• During the 1950s and 1960s, the central government was generally resistant to demands for state creation based on religious grounds. Demands for separate states were often accommodated only when supported by both groups involved in the conflict.
• The Punjab Crisis of the 1980s, marked by the rise of the Khalistan movement, challenged the sovereignty of the Indian state and the concept of India as a nation-state. The movement was fueled by socio-economic discontent following the Green Revolution and political manipulation of religious sentiments.

4. Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir:

• Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir stemmed from perceptions of discrimination by the dominant religious groups and the central government. Ethnic movements within the state, especially in Ladakh and Jammu, also demanded greater autonomy.
• These movements reflect the complex interplay of ethnic identity, regional grievances, and the broader political landscape in post-independence India.

Tribal Ethnic and Identity Movements in India

Tribal movements in India serve as prime examples of ethnic mobilization, driven by a shared sense of culture, customs, language, race, religion (indigenous or otherwise), and economic concerns. These movements often begin with a single issue but quickly encompass multiple factors. Expressions of tribal ethnic movements include:

• Insurgency
• Protection of indigenous culture and economy
• Secession from the Union of India
• Autonomy movements or demands for separate states
• Ethnic conflicts and riots

Common triggers for tribal mobilization are perceived or real threats to their indigenous culture, economy, and natural resources, such as minerals and forests, often posed by outsiders. Significant uprisings have occurred across various states, including Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, and Nagaland. Notable tribes involved in these revolts during the nineteenth century included the Mizos, Kols, Mundas, Daflas, Khazis, Garos, Kacharis, and Kondhas.

• While some scholars have likened post-independence tribal movements to peasant movements, others argue against this perspective due to the distinct social and political organization of tribes, their relative isolation from mainstream society, and their unique leadership and mobilization patterns. Tribal community consciousness is robust, and movements often encompass agrarian and forest-based issues. Ethnic revolts have targeted zamindars, money lenders, and petty government officials, with instances of land usurpation and forced labor exacerbating the situation. Tribals found themselves becoming tenants on their own land or even bonded laborers, with little support from the police or revenue officers. Courts were often unaware of tribal customs and the severity of their plight, leading to land alienation, usurpation, and forced labor.
• Forest management issues also sparked revolts, as forests are crucial for the livelihood of many tribes. British legislation allowing merchants and contractors to cut forests deprived tribes of vital resources, prompting movements in regions like Andhra Pradesh.
• Raghavaiah's analysis of revolts from 1778 to 1970 identified 70 revolts, while the Anthropological Survey of India in 1976 noted 36 ongoing tribal movements. Despite the relatively infrequent nature of these revolts, almost every major tribe in central or eastern India has, at some point in the last 150 years, engaged in movements to express their protest and despair.
• Research on tribal movements has been conducted in North-East and Central India, but significant movements are less common among southern tribes, which are often too small, primitive, and isolated to organize despite facing exploitation and discontent. L.K. Mahapatra noted the absence of significant social, religious, status-mobility, or political movements among numerically small and migratory tribes in the south.

Classification of Tribal Movements After Independence

Tribal movements after independence can be classified based on various criteria, including their causes, orientations, and responses to exploitation and deprivation.

1. Classification by Causes

• Movements due to exploitation by outsiders: Examples include the movements of the Santhals and Mundas.
• Movements due to economic deprivation: Such as those of the Gonds in Madhya Pradesh and the Mahars in Andhra Pradesh.
• Movements due to separatist tendencies: Notable examples include the Nagas and Mizos.

2. Classification by Orientation

• Movements seeking political autonomy and state formation: Examples include the Nagas, Mizos, and Jharkhand movements.
• Agrarian movements: Focused on agricultural rights and issues.
• Forest-based movements: Centered on forest rights and resources.
• Socioreligious or socio-cultural movements: Such as the Bhagat movement among the Bhils and Raghunath Murmu's movement among the Santhals.

3. Classification by Response Type

• Reactionary movements: These aim to revert to a perceived better past.
• Conservative movements: Focus on maintaining the current state of affairs.
• Revolutionary or revisionary movements: These seek to improve or purify cultural or social practices by eliminating perceived evils.

4. Surajit Sinha's Classification

• Ethnic rebellion: Movements that resist oppression based on ethnic identity.
• Reform movements: Focused on social or cultural reforms.
• Political autonomy movements: Seeking greater autonomy within the Indian Union.
• Secessionist movements: Seeking to separate from the Indian Union.
• Agrarian unrest: Discontent related to agricultural issues.

5. S.M. Dube's Classification

• Religious and social reform movements: Focus on reforming social or religious practices.
• Movements for separate statehood: Demanding the creation of separate states.
• Insurgent movements: Involving armed resistance.
• Cultural rights movements: Seeking recognition of cultural rights.

6. Ghanshyam Shah's Classification

• Ethnic movements: Based on ethnic identity.
• Agrarian movements: Focused on agricultural issues.
• Political movements: Related to political rights and representation.

7. K.S. Singh's Classification

• Agrarian movements: Related to agricultural rights and issues.
• Sanskritisation movements: Efforts to assert higher social status through cultural practices.
• Cultural movements: Focused on maintaining or promoting cultural identity.
• Political movements: Related to political rights and representation.

8. Stephen Fuchs' Analysis

• Messianic movements: Led by charismatic leaders in times of distress, focusing on economic, social, or political issues.
• Fuchs emphasizes the individual ability of leaders in such movements.

9. B.K. Roy Burman's Distinction

• Prevocational movements: Emerging from tribal interactions at a local level.
• Substantial movements: Resulting from social disorganization and disparities in development.
• Proto-national movements involve exclusion and expansion, while sub-national movements focus on social disorganization and disparities.

10. L.K. Mahapatra's Observations

• Reformist movements often evolve from charismatic leadership to rationalization and institutionalization.
• Numerically strong and economically well-off tribals are more likely to initiate movements.
• Primitive and small tribals may resort to conversion or separatist tendencies.
• Pan-Indian tribal movements are unlikely to emerge due to geographic distribution.
• Democratic politics among tribes is fragmented, hindering civil collectivism.

Concluding Remarks

• Tribal movements are responses to oppression, discrimination, neglect, and government indifference.
• They reflect a struggle for rights and recognition, often through non-violent means or militant paths.
• The diversity in movements indicates a complex landscape of tribal identity, rights, and aspirations.

Key Takeaways

• Tribal movements post-independence reflect a range of responses to socio-economic challenges and cultural preservation.
• The classification of these movements helps in understanding the underlying motivations and goals driving tribal communities.
• Despite the efforts through various paths, tribal communities continue to face challenges, highlighting the need for sustained attention to their issues.