Foundation of Delhi Sultanate: Rule of Balban | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Balban

Ghiyasuddin Balban and the Balbani Dynasty:

• Ghiyasuddin Balban established the Balbani Dynasty, despite being closely linked to the Iltutmish dynasty through family ties. His sons-in-law were Sultan Masud Shah and Sultan Nasiruddin, while his son Bughra Khan was married to Sultan Nasiruddin's daughter.
• Originally named Ulugh Khan and part of the Chihalgani Turks, Balban became the dominant figure in Delhi from 1246 until his death in 1287, even though he officially ascended the throne in 1266.

Early Life and Career:

• Dr. A.L. Srivastava suggests that Balban was an Ilbari Turk, born to a prominent family. His early life was marked by hardship when he was captured by Mongols and sold into slavery in Baghdad. Eventually, he was brought to Delhi and sold to Iltutmish.
• Balban initially served as Khassadar and later was appointed amir-i-shikar by Raziya Sultan. However, he betrayed Raziya and played a role in her ousting.
• He received jagirs from Bahram Shah and Masud Shah, consolidating his power within the Turkish nobility. Balban was instrumental in placing Sultan Nasiruddin on the throne.
• After marrying his daughter to Sultan Nasiruddin, Balban held significant power during Nasiruddin's reign, although he faced setbacks when ousted from his position temporarily.
• Balban eventually regained his position, and historical accounts suggest he poisoned Nasiruddin to ascend the throne in 1266 AD.

Balban as the Ruler (1266-87)

Beginning of Strong Centralized Government:

• Balban faced many challenges when he became Sultan, despite having ruled for nearly 20 years under Sultan Nasiruddin. His main goal was to restore the lost prestige of the Sultanate.
• After Iltutmish's death, Turkish slave-nobles tried to seize power, diminishing the Crown's prestige. Balban, who had initially contributed to this decline, recognized the need to restore the Sultan's authority.
• He aimed to weaken the nobility's power and instill fear and respect among the populace.
• Balban's challenges included ensuring the security and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate. Key issues included:
• North-West Threat: Addressing the growing power of the Mongols.
• Bengal Independence: Reasserting control over Bengal to prevent other provinces from following its lead.
• Hindu Rebellions: Suppressing revolts in Doab, Malwa, Bundelkhand, and Rajasthan.
• Internal Revolts: Dealing with uprisings from the Meos in Mewat and Hindus in Katehar, ensuring the safety of Delhi.
• To tackle these internal and external threats, Balban focused on enhancing the monarchy's prestige and centralizing authority in the Sultan's hands.

Balban’s Theory of Kingship

1. Balban's theory of kingship was centered around Prestige, Power, and Justice. He was the first Sultan of Delhi to emphasize the Sultan's authority, believing it crucial for maintaining the Sultan's dignity and preventing conflicts with the nobility.
2. Balban aimed to impress upon his nobles that his rule was ordained by Divine Will, not by assassination. He adopted the title Zil-i-Ilahi, or "Shadow of God," and believed the Sultan should be a despot.
3. He followed the Iranian theory of kingship, where the king was seen as divine and accountable only to God. He asserted that the Sultan's word was law and embodied despotism.
4. Balban believed in nobility by birth, feeling that those from lowly families should not become nobles. He also claimed descent from the Iranian hero Afraisyab to legitimize his rule.
5. To enhance the dignity of the throne, Balban maintained a lavish court, upheld strict order, and required prostration before him, a practice reserved for God. He refused audiences to those he deemed beneath the throne's dignity.
6. Balban emphasized justice to temper his despotism. He was inflexible in his judgments, showing no favoritism, and appointed spies to ensure officials acted justly.
7. He upheld justice by punishing his nobles severely for wrongdoings, such as flogging Malik Bakbak to death for killing his servant and ordering Malik Haibat to be whipped for murder.
8. Balban believed that excessive wealth or overt harshness could lead to rebellion. He advised moderation in taxation and was known for helping the poor and helpless during his time as a Khan and later as Sultan.
9. As Sultan, he ensured the poor,helpless,women,children, and elderly were protected from harm by soldiers during army camps.

Balban Policies and Contributions

Blood and Iron Policy

• Balban was extremely harsh when he found any rebelliousness or disturbance of the peace.
• Following the death of Iltutmish, the Meos around Delhi had grown in numbers and boldness.
• The Meos had become so daring as to attack the city at night and break into peoples’ houses.
• All the inns in the neighbourhood had been plundered by the Meos, affecting trade.
• During the first two years of his reign, Balban spent a whole year in suppressing the Meos and cutting the forests around Delhi.
• He slaughtered a large number of Meos, built a fort, and established many thanas (military outposts).
• Balban assigned the thanas to Afghans and set apart tax-free villages for their maintenance.
• Thus, Delhi was freed from the fear of the Meos.
• In the Doab, robbers and dacoits had closed the roads to Delhi from all sides.
• It had become impossible for the caravans and traders to come and depart.
• To fix this, Balban appointed powerful iqtadars to the various territories in the Doab.
• He ordered the villages of the disobedient to be totally destroyed.
• The men were to be killed and their women and children seized as spoils of war.
• The thick forests in the area were cut down.
• Balban adopted similar measures to deal with the rebels in Katehar (modern Rohilkhand).
• These rebels were plundering villages and harassing the people in the territories of Badaun and Amroha.
• Thus, disturbances in Mewat, Doab, Awadh, and Katihar were ruthlessly suppressed.
• In AD 1279, encouraged by the Mongol threats and the old age of Sultan, the governor of Bengal, Tughril Beg, revolted.
• Tughril assumed the title of Sultan and had the khutba read in his name.
• Balban sent his forces to Bengal and had Tughril killed.
• These harsh methods of Balban have been called by some modern historians a policy of “blood and iron”.
• However, it would be wrong to apply this to all of Balban’s policies.
• He introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles and people with his wealth and power.
• He stood forth as the champion of Turkish nobility.
• At the same time, he didn’t share power with other Nobles.

Administration & System of espionage

Balban's Administrative System:

• Balban's administrative system was a mix of military and civil functions, with all officers expected to handle both aspects.
• He personally oversaw the entire administration, with no naib position and a diminished role for the wazir.
• Balban was meticulous in appointing officers, ensuring that only individuals of noble birth were given high positions.
• He successfully maintained peace and justice for his subjects.

Spy System:

• Balban's success was largely due to his efficient spy system.
• He established a network of spies and newswriters(Barids) to monitor the actions of governors, military and civil officers, and even his own sons.
• These spies, appointed by Balban and paid well, were expected to report important information directly to the Sultan.
• They faced severe punishment for failing to submit accurate and timely reports about the misconduct of the nobility.
• Each spy had direct access to the Sultan, although they did not meet him in court.
• Balban's spy system instilled fear in government employees, reinforced central government control, and aided in establishing an absolute monarchy.

Destruction of “The Forty”

Balban's Rise to Power:

• As Prime Minister under Sultan Nasiruddin, Balban aimed to diminish the influence of the ‘forty’ nobles to strengthen the Sultan's authority.
• He promoted junior officers to high ranks, ensuring their loyalty, and severely punished members of the forty for minor offenses to tarnish their reputations.
• By the time Balban became Sultan, most nobles had either died or been eliminated by him. The remaining nobles were either killed or stripped of power.

Actions Against Nobles:

• Malik Baqbaq, governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged, demoted, and disgraced for killing a slave.
• Haibat Khan, governor of Avadh, was whipped 500 times and handed over to the widow of the slave he murdered while intoxicated.
• Amin Khan, also governor of Avadh, was hanged for failing to suppress the revolt of Tughril Khan of Bengal.
• Sher Khan, a cousin of Balban and member of the forty, was poisoned out of Balban's jealousy and suspicion of his ambition.

Balban's Legacy:

• Balban effectively dismantled the forty, who had seized power from the weak descendants of Iltutmish.
• Ironically, Balban himself was a member of the Chalisa but played a crucial role in its destruction.

Organised a strong centralized army

Balban's Reforms in the Military:

• To strengthen the centralized state, Balban focused on building a strong army under direct sultan control.
• Brave maliks and sardars were appointed to lead royal forces, with thousands of new sawars added and given fertile villages in iqta for adequate pay.
• Balban investigated the status of old Turkish soldiers who had been given villages in the doab as iqta instead of salary. Many were too old to serve but kept the villages with the help of the diwan-i-arz.
• Although Balban wanted to pension off these old soldiers, he reversed his decision at the request of Fakhruddin, the kotwal of Delhi.
• To maintain army alertness, Balban organized secret hunting expeditions involving thousands of horsemen, archers, and footmen, keeping officers and men on their toes.
• These measures aimed to address internal disturbances and counter the threat of the Mongols to the Delhi Sultanate.
• Balban reorganized the military department (diwan-i-arz), allowing nobles to recruit their own soldiers.
• He emphasized the importance of horses and elephants for the army. While he had a good supply of elephants from Bengal and Assam, the Mongol conquest of Central Asia made it hard to obtain horses from there.
• Balban had to rely on Indian horses from the Siwaliks,Punjab, etc. Recruitment of soldiers and slaves from Turkistan and Khurasan became difficult, so Afghans and Indians, including Hindus, filled the gap.
• Despite having a large and efficient army kept ready through constant exercises, Balban refrained from expanding the Delhi Sultanate’s territories or raiding neighboring kings like Malwa or Gujarat. He was wary of the constant threat posed by the Mongols, who were always looking to raid the doab and ravage Delhi.

Struggle for the Territorial Integrity of the Sultanat

Balban's Response to Internal Dissent and Regional Challenges:

• Mongol Threat: Balban was primarily focused on the Mongol threat, which limited his ability to lead expeditions far from Delhi.
• Restoration of Authority: According to historian Barani, Balban restored the dignity and authority of the government upon taking the throne. His strict rules and determination forced people across his dominions to submit to his authority.
• Strengthening Central Government: While Balban did strengthen the prestige and power of the Central Government, internal conflicts persisted. These conflicts were driven by two main factors:
• Ambitious Turkish Nobles: Some Turkish nobles and chiefs, including neighbors of India, attempted to establish independent spheres of authority. In regions like Sindh and Multan, several governors declared independence. Balban managed to regain control over Multan and Sindh.
• Bengal and Bihar: In the eastern regions of Bengal and Bihar, governors in Lakhnauti fluctuated between allegiance to the Sultan of Delhi and asserting their independence. Balban faced challenges in maintaining control over these areas.
• Governors of Lakhnauti: Balban initially appointed Yuzbek as governor of Lakhnauti, but he quickly sought independence. Later, Tughril was appointed as governor, but he also broke allegiance with Delhi, declared himself Sultan, and had the khubah recited in his name.
• Tughril's Rebellion: Tughril's rebellion, as the governor of Bengal, was a significant challenge. Balban sent senior Turkish officers, Amir Khan and Bahadur, to quell the rebellion, but they failed. Balban eventually led a campaign against Tughril, resulting in Tughril's death and severe punishment for his followers in Lakhnauti.
• Rajput Resistance: Rajput rajas, rais, and zamindars also attempted to assert themselves and expel Turks from their territories. After Razia's death, the Turks lost Gwaliyar and Ranthambhor. Balban recovered Gwaliyar but struggled to recapture Ranthambhor. In Bundelkhand, Rajput branches like the Chandelas, Bhar, and Baghelas continued to rule. Balban led an expedition against the Baghela chief of Rewa, but its political significance was limited.
• Hindu Threat: While Rajput efforts did not threaten the Turkish state's existence or territorial integrity, the perceived Hindu threat was sometimes used by rulers to address internal dissension.
• Lahore and Punjab: Lahore remained under Delhi's nominal control, but the effective frontier in the northwest became the river Beas, leading to a significant loss of Punjab territory.

Steps taken to combat the Mongol menace

Balban's Strategy Against the Mongols:

• Force and Diplomacy: Balban used both military strength and diplomatic efforts to deal with the Mongols.
• Diplomatic Steps:

• As a naib(deputy), Balban sent an envoy to Halaku, a key figure among Chingez's successors.

• In 1260, Halaku sent a return embassy, which Balban received with great honor.

• By the time Balban became Sultan in 1266, Halaku had passed away, ending the goodwill between the Mongols and the Delhi Sultan.

• Building a Strong Army: Despite having a large and efficient army ready for action, Balban chose not to expand the Delhi Sultanate's territory or raid neighboring kings due to the threat of Mongol raids. He focused on keeping a close watch on the North-West frontier.
• Construction of Forts: To strengthen the North-West frontier, Balban ordered the construction of forts such as Bhatinda,Sarsa,Bhate, and Abohar.

Appointment of Strong Chiefs:

• Sher Khan, Balban's cousin, was appointed to defend the North-Western frontier. He effectively and bravely repelled Mongol invaders, instilling fear in them.
• After Sher Khan's death in 1270 A.D., his position was taken over by Muhammad(Balban's son), who continued to fight against the Mongols until his death in 1286 A.D.
• The provinces of Lahore,Multan, and Uchh were under Muhammad's supervision, while Bughra Khan was in charge of Sunam,Samana, and Dipalpur.
• Securing the Capital: Balban also focused on securing the capital by abandoning expansion plans.
• Focus on Internal Security: He emphasized internal security through a strong hand and a powerful spy system to handle external threats without worrying about internal rebellions.

Mongol Invasions During Balban's Era:

• 1241: Attack on Lahore (Balban was not in power at this time).
• 1279: Mongol attack defeated by Muhammed,Bughra Khan, and Mubarak Bakhtiyar.
• 1285: Attack on Punjab by Taimur Khan—defeated by Muhammad, who died bravely in battle.

Assessment of Balban

Balban's Role in the Sultanate of Delhi

Policy of Consolidation:

• Balban focused on strengthening the monarchy rather than expanding the territory.
• He introduced a new theory of kingship and redefined the relationship between the Sultan and the nobility.

Law and Order:

• Balban enforced strict law and order in the upper doab (Indo-Gangetic plain) by suppressing lawless elements.
• He made the roads safe for the movement of goods and merchants, laying the groundwork for future expansion.

Control Over Iqtadars:

• Although Balban did not reorganize the administration, he maintained tight control over the iqtadars (provincial governors).
• Revenues that were previously misappropriated were redirected to the central government.

Use of Funds:

• Funds collected were used to establish a lavish court and strengthen the central army.

Mongol Threat:

• Balban could not fully defend northern India against the Mongols but managed to contain them along the Multan-Dipalpur-Sunam line.
• Despite facing lesser Mongol commanders, he could not push them back beyond Lahore.

Rebellion in Bengal:

• Balban struggled to control Tughril’s rebellion in Bengal for six years.
• The desertion of senior Turkish officers indicated growing dissatisfaction with Balban's policies.

Turkish Soldiers' Dissatisfaction:

• Turkish soldiers were unhappy with their salaries and expected to supplement them through plunder.
• Balban’s focus on consolidation denied them such opportunities.

Independence Attempts:

• Attempts by Balban’s own slaves Yuzbek and Tughril to gain independence in Lakhnauti showed the persistent desire for independence among Turkish tribes.

Exclusion Policy:

• Balban’s policy of excluding non-Turkish individuals from power positions led to dissatisfaction and subsequent disturbances after his death.

Loyal Nobles and Legacy:

• He formed a group of loyal nobles called “Balbani”.
• His removal of many members of the “Forty” weakened the state.
• Despite his limitations, Balban built a polity capable of sustaining itself and ready for expansion.

Hasan Nizami’s Taj-ul Maasir 

Hasan Nizami's Tajul Maasir, subtitled 'The Crown of Exploits', focuses on the history of Qutbuddin Aibak.

Author's Narrative:

• The narrative begins in 1191-92, around the time when Muhammad Ghori invaded India to avenge his earlier defeat by Prithvi Raj III, the Chauhan ruler of Delhi and Ajmer, leading to the second battle of Tarain.
• Nizami details the military exploits of Aibak, but notably omits any mention of Aram Shah in his account.
• The work also covers the events of Iltutmish's reign up to 1217.
• Tajul Ma'asir is recognized as the first historical narrative focusing on the onset of Muslim rule in India.
• Unlike other contemporary chronicles that often start with Ghazni,Central Asia, or Islam, this work marks the beginning of the history of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The narrative is presented in a unique blend of Arabic and Persian languages, incorporating both poetry and prose.

Blend of History and Fiction:

• The work is a mix of history and fiction.
• Amidst the historical accounts, Nizami weaves in fantastic tales about various subjects and characters, showcasing his eloquent style.
• He also includes a series of subordinate descriptions, reminiscent of the ancient Indian Panchtantra literature, covering topics like mirrors, chess rules, natural elements, seasons, fruits, and flowers.

Minhaj- us Siraj’s Tabaqat-i-Nasiri 

Ziauddin Barani 

Ziauddin Barani (b. 1285), renowned for his work Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi, is considered the greatest historian of early medieval India. He served at the imperial court under  Muhammad bin Tughluq.

Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi 

Barani's Historical Narrative:

• Barani's work continues where Minhaj-us Siraj left off, documenting the history of the Delhi Sultanate from Balban's reign in 1265 to Firoze Shah Tughluq.
• His narrative covers the consolidation, expansion, and early disintegration of the Sultanate, focusing on rulers like Balban, Jalaluddin, Alauddin, Ghiyasuddin Tughluq, Md. Bin Tughluq, and Firuz Shah Tughluq.
• Barani is considered an authentic historian due to his personal connections with rulers and his uncle's advisory role.
• His work, except for the section on Firoze Tughluq, is regarded as a standard in historical writing, showcasing his reputation as a leading historian of his time.
• Barani excels in character sketches and insights into economic and administrative issues.
• His approach is analytical and critical, focusing on political and administrative matters as a whole rather than getting bogged down in details.
• Despite his subjective views influenced by his background and personal experiences, Barani demonstrates the qualities of a true historian.

Criticism of Barani’s account 

Barani's presentation often exhibited bias, particularly in his portrayal of historical figures such as Muhammad bin Tughluq and Firoze Tughluq.

• Bias in Depiction: Barani's account of Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign is marked by unfairness and deliberate distortion of facts, reflecting a biased perspective.
• Flattery Under Duress: His narrative of Firoze Tughluq's reign was influenced by personal circumstances, as Barani resorted to flattery to appease the Sultan after facing disgrace in the royal court.
• Misnomer of Title: The title of his work, Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi, misrepresents its content, as Barani's true historical worth is more evident in his accounts of preceding Sultans rather than those of Muhammad bin Tughluq or Firoze Tughluq.
• Lack of Chronological Order: Barani's deficiency in dates and chronological analysis may stem from his reliance on memory during a difficult period of his life, lacking notes or references for accuracy.