Geography - 2 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

India Joins Sri Lanka in Seabed Mining Race

Why in News?

Recently, India applied for rights to explore the Indian Ocean seabed beyond its jurisdiction, including the cobalt-rich Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (AN Seamount). This initiative is driven by concerns over Chinese vessels conducting reconnaissance in the area. Rights to this region have already been claimed by other nations under a different legal framework.

What is Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (AN Seamount)?

• AN Seamount is a geological structure that measures approximately 400 km in length and 150 km in width, situated in the Central Indian Basin, about 3,000 km away from India's coastline.
• It rises from an ocean depth of around 4,800 meters to about 1,200 meters and is abundant in valuable deposits such as cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper.
• To initiate extraction, countries must first apply for an exploration license from the International Seabed Authority (ISBA), which operates independently under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
• The rights granted are specific to areas classified as part of the open ocean, which encompasses around 60% of the world's seas, believed to be rich in diverse mineral resources, despite high extraction costs and challenges.

What is Deep Sea Bed Mining?

• Deep-sea mining refers to the extraction of valuable mineral deposits from the ocean floor at depths starting from 6,500 meters below the surface.
• Minerals targeted for extraction include copper, cobalt, nickel, zinc, silver, gold, and rare earth elements.
• The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) has tested deep-sea mining technology at depths of up to 512 meters and is developing systems for deeper extractions, reaching up to 6,000 meters.
• Historically, establishing deep-sea mines was thought to be costlier than land-based mining; however, advancements in underwater robotics and technologies from the petroleum industry have enhanced the feasibility of deep-sea mining.

What are the Continental Shelf Claims and Exploration Rights?

• Countries have exclusive rights to their continental shelf extending up to 200 nautical miles from their coastline, including the seabed beneath.
• This jurisdiction allows for exploration and potential exploitation of resources within this zone.
• Some coastal states may have natural land formations that extend their claims beyond the 200-nautical-mile limit, known as continental shelf extensions.
• For instance, Sri Lanka has utilized special provisions to assert a claim for an extension of its continental shelf up to 500 nautical miles, exceeding the standard limit of 350 nautical miles.
• To substantiate claims for exclusive rights beyond 200 nautical miles, countries must present scientific evidence supported by underwater maps and surveys to a scientific commission appointed by the ISBA.
• If approved, the country can explore and exploit both living and non-living resources within the extended continental shelf.

What is the Significance of Deep Sea Mining?

• Resource Accessibility: Deep sea mining unlocks access to critical resources that are increasingly scarce on land, including polymetallic nodules, sulphides, and cobalt-rich crusts containing essential minerals like copper, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements.
• Technological Advancements: Developing technology for deep-sea mining fosters opportunities for innovation, including specialized equipment designed for extreme oceanic conditions such as high pressure, darkness, and low temperatures. Advances in robotics, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are crucial for efficient operations.
• Economic Potential: Deep sea mining can yield substantial economic benefits for participating nations and companies. Extracting valuable minerals from the ocean floor can stimulate economic growth, create jobs, and enhance national revenue through taxes, royalties, and resource-sharing agreements.

What are the Concerns Related to Deep Sea Mining?

• Damage to Marine Ecosystem: Deep sea mining poses risks to marine ecosystems. Mining activities can result in noise, vibration, and light pollution, as well as potential leaks and spills of fuels and chemicals, threatening marine biodiversity.
• Sediment Plumes Formation: The mining process can disturb fine sediments on the seafloor, creating plumes of suspended particles. Often, slurry sediment plumes are discharged back into the ocean, harming filter-feeding species like corals and sponges, and could smother or disrupt other marine life.
• Wider Impact on Marine Population: The impact of deep-sea mining extends beyond the seafloor, potentially affecting fish populations, marine mammals, and the essential roles of deep-sea ecosystems in climate regulation.
• Digging & Gauging: The mechanical alteration of the ocean floor can destroy deep-sea habitats and threaten unknown species residing at greater depths.

What are other Blue Economy Initiatives?

• India-Norway Task Force on Blue Economy for Sustainable Development
• Sagarmala Project
• O-SMART
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management
• National Fisheries Policy

Way Forward

• Regulatory Framework Enhancement: Strengthening regulations and international agreements is crucial for ensuring responsible and sustainable deep-sea mining practices. This includes establishing stringent guidelines for light pollution and strict protocols for the handling and disposal of mining by-products and chemicals.
• Environmental Impact Assessments: Conducting comprehensive environmental impact assessments prior to granting mining licenses is essential. These assessments should evaluate potential harm to marine ecosystems, biodiversity, and long-term effects on marine mammals.
• Mitigation Measures: Implementing effective strategies to minimize the impact of deep-sea mining activities is vital. This could involve using advanced technologies to lessen noise and light pollution, employing sediment control measures to limit suspended particles, and developing innovative waste management methods.
• Monitoring and Enforcement: Establishing robust monitoring systems to oversee the environmental impacts of deep-sea mining operations is necessary. Regular inspections and enforcement of regulations can ensure adherence to environmental standards and enable prompt interventions in case of violations.

Integrated River Basin Management

Why in News?

A recent report authored by the Kathmandu-based International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and the Australian Water Partnership has emphasized the need for multilateral treaties for effective integrated river basin management of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers.

What are the Key Highlights of the Report?

Integrated River Basin Management:

• The report underscores the significance of adopting an integrated approach to river basin management, which involves comprehensive planning across the entire basin. This requires effective sharing of data on water resources, biodiversity, and pollution among all stakeholders.

Need for Multilateral Treaties:

• While there are existing bilateral treaties and agreements related to water data sharing, the report highlights a critical lack of multilateral agreements for river management in the region. This absence presents significant challenges to effective governance.
• Establishing multilateral treaties is essential for the efficient management of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers.

Dependence on Critical Rivers:

• Millions of individuals in India, Tibet (China), Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, and Bhutan depend on the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers for their food and water security. This reliance makes it crucial to develop comprehensive management strategies.
• All three river basins are part of the larger Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra (IGB) Plain, a vast alluvial plain covering parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal.

Ganga River Basin:

• Over 600 million people in India, along with 29 million Nepalese and millions in Bangladesh, inhabit this basin area.
• Currently, there is no tripartite agreement involving Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.

Indus River Basin:

• This river is a vital resource for 268 million people living within its basin.

Brahmaputra River Basin:

• Approximately 114 million people depend on this river for essential resources such as water, electricity, food, agriculture, and fishing.

Recommendations:

• Recognizing and utilizing the expertise of local communities for effective crisis management.
• Empowering local communities by providing them with resources and technology to enhance their resilience against challenges.
• Addressing existing data gaps concerning water availability, biodiversity, and pollution within the river basins to improve management practices and establish early warning systems.
• Adopting a holistic, 'whole basin' research approach that promotes data-sharing and strategic planning, while also considering the impacts of climate change to ensure a reliable water supply.
• Encouraging 'hydro-solidarity' and promoting climate diplomacy among researchers from different countries to foster trust and facilitate discussions on transboundary water issues.
• 'Hydro-solidarity' refers to the promotion of cooperation and mutual support among nations in managing shared water resources. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of countries regarding water resources and the necessity for collective action to address water-related challenges.
• This includes creating equitable water-sharing agreements, fostering collaborative governance, investing in water infrastructure, and addressing the water-energy-food nexus.
• Climate diplomacy is vital in tackling water stress caused by climate change, and integrating water diplomacy with climate diplomacy can help address the interconnected challenges of water scarcity and climate change.

Menace of Illegal Migration

Why in News?

Recently, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported that in 2023, a total of 8,565 migrants lost their lives while trying to traverse land and sea routes globally. This figure represents nearly a 20% increase in migrant deaths compared to 2022. The IOM's "Missing Migrants" project, initiated in 2014, tracks these fatalities, particularly focusing on the rising death toll in the Mediterranean Sea and the influx of migrants to the Italian island of Lampedusa.

What is the International Organization for Migration?

• Overview: The IOM was founded in 1951 as the Provisional Intergovernmental Committee for the Movement of Migrants from Europe (PICMME) in response to the aftermath of World War II. It has undergone several name changes, becoming the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (ICEM) in 1952, then the Intergovernmental Committee for Migration (ICM) in 1980, and finally the International Organization for Migration in 1989, reflecting its growth into a comprehensive migration agency.
• UN Collaboration: In 2016, the IOM entered into a formal agreement with the United Nations, becoming a related organization.
• Membership: Currently, the IOM has 175 Member States, along with 8 states holding Observer status. India became a member on June 18, 2008.
• Crisis Response: The IOM has been involved in crisis management throughout its history, responding to crises such as those in Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), Chile (1973), the Vietnamese Boat People (1975), Kuwait (1990), Kosovo and Timor (1999), as well as the Asian tsunami and the Pakistan earthquake (2004/2005).

What is the Status of Migration Across the Globe?

• Definition: Migration refers to the movement of individuals from one location to another, often resulting in a change of residence. This movement can occur within a country (internal migration) or between countries (international migration) and may be temporary or permanent based on personal intentions and circumstances.
• Migrant Population: According to IOM, migrants currently make up approximately 3.6% of the global population.

Major Causes:

• Economic Factors: Many individuals migrate to seek better employment opportunities, higher wages, improved living conditions, and access to vital services such as education and healthcare.
• Conflict and War: Armed conflicts, civil wars, and political instability often compel people to leave their homes in search of safety in other regions or countries.
• Environmental Factors: Natural disasters, including floods, droughts, hurricanes, and the impacts of climate change, can force populations to migrate.
• Social and Political Issues: Discrimination, persecution, human rights violations, and political oppression can lead individuals or communities to seek asylum or migrate to countries with more favorable conditions.
• Urbanization: People from rural areas may relocate to urban centers in pursuit of better employment, education, healthcare, and living standards, contributing to the trend of urbanization.

Major Challenges Faced by Illegal Migrants:

• Physical Dangers: Illegal migrants often encounter significant physical hazards during their journeys, such as traversing perilous terrains like the Darién Gap, facing a lack of clean water, encountering wild animals, and being vulnerable to violence from criminal gangs. These situations can result in injuries, illnesses, or even fatalities.
• Legal Challenges: Undocumented migrants frequently face legal barriers, lack access to essential rights and services, and live under the constant threat of deportation, detention, or exploitation.
• Discrimination: Many migrants experience discrimination and hostility based on nationality, ethnicity, religion, or cultural background, which can lead to social exclusion and unequal treatment.
• Exploitation: Vulnerable groups, particularly women and children, are at heightened risk of human trafficking, exploitation, abuse, and forced labor, especially in informal or precarious employment situations.

Way Forward

• Global Compact for Migration: Implementing the objectives set forth in the UN-led Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration (GCM) aims to address migration challenges through a collaborative, people-centered approach involving governments, civil society, and other stakeholders.
• Legal Pathways: Enhancing legal and safe migration pathways, such as resettlement programs for refugees, family reunification mechanisms, labor migration schemes, and humanitarian visas, can help reduce reliance on dangerous and illegal routes.
• Combating Trafficking: Strengthening law enforcement efforts and international cooperation is essential to combat human trafficking and smuggling networks that exploit migrants.
• Regional Cooperation: Encouraging regional collaboration among countries of origin, transit, and destination will help develop joint strategies for effective migration management, information sharing, and capacity building.
• Support for Returnees: Programs that assist returning migrants with reintegration into their communities should include access to education, vocational training, healthcare, and psychosocial support.

Surge in Demand of Copper

Why in news?

As demand for copper grew by 16% year-on-year in FY23, policymakers and corporations have increasingly turned their attention to the critical role of copper in spurring economic growth.

About:

• Copper is a malleable and ductile metal, renowned for its excellent conductivity of heat and electricity.
• It exhibits corrosion resistance and has antimicrobial properties.
• Malleability: This property allows copper to be shaped into thin sheets without fracturing.
• Ductility: Copper can be stretched into thin wires without losing its strength.

Applications:

• Copper is widely used in construction, consumer goods, transportation, and industrial manufacturing.
• It is essential for clean energy technologies, including solar panels, electric vehicles (EVs), and energy-efficient motors.
• As a 100% recyclable metal, copper significantly contributes to a circular economy.

Occurrence and Composition:

• Copper is found naturally in several forms within the Earth's crust.
• It occurs in sulphide deposits (chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, covellite), carbonate deposits (azurite, malachite), silicate deposits (chrysocolla, dioptase), and as pure native copper.
• Most copper ore deposits have an average grade of 0.8% copper, while Indian copper ore has about 1% copper content.

Mining Methods:

• The two primary methods of copper mining are open-pit mining and underground mining.
• Open-pit mining is the dominant method, accounting for 80% of global copper mining activities.

Copper Deposits in India:

• Major deposits are found in Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh), and districts like Jhunjhunu and Alwar (Rajasthan).
• Minor deposits exist in Agnigundala (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurga and Hassan (Karnataka), and South Arcot (Tamil Nadu).

India’s Copper Appetite:

• The demand for copper in India is rising due to increasing infrastructure projects, renewable energy initiatives, and urbanization.
• Despite this growing demand, India heavily relies on copper imports due to limited domestic reserves.
• The government is encouraging investments in smelters and refineries to enhance local production.
• Indian companies are also acquiring copper mines overseas to ensure a stable supply and reduce reliance on imports.
• Recently, the Ministry of Mines proposed sending a delegation to Zambia, a country rich in copper, to explore mining opportunities.
• Recognizing its importance, copper has been included in the government’s list of critical minerals, emphasizing the need to minimize import dependence.

Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL):

• Established in 1967 under the Companies Act, HCL is a Miniratna Category-I enterprise that operates under the Ministry of Mines, Government of India.
• It was formed to consolidate all copper exploration and exploitation projects from the National Mineral Development Corporation Ltd.
• HCL is recognized as India's only vertically integrated copper-producing company.

Copper's Key Importance

Copper as an Economic Barometer:

• Copper prices are indicative of demand and supply dynamics, monetary markets, and speculation, making it a global economic indicator.
• It is integral across all economic sectors, unlike commodities that are sector-specific.

Copper for Energy Efficiency:

• Copper is crucial for enhancing energy efficiency in buildings.
• Its exceptional thermal and electrical conductivity makes it ideal for applications such as wiring, heat exchangers, and roofing.
• By reducing energy consumption for heating, cooling, and lighting, copper contributes to a sustainable future.

Black Sea

Why in news?

Russia has appointed Admiral Alexander Moiseev as the new acting head of its Navy, following a series of successful attacks by Ukraine on Russia's fleet, which has suffered considerable losses.

What are the Key Facts About the Black Sea?

About: The Black Sea, also referred to as the Euxine Sea, is a significant body of water and one of the well-known inland seas in the world. It is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean situated between Eastern Europe and Western Asia.

Geographical Location:

• Land Boundary: The Black Sea is bordered by several countries: Ukraine to the north and northwest, Russia and Georgia to the east, Türkiye to the south, and Bulgaria and Romania to the west.
• Maritime Boundary: It connects to the Sea of Marmara via the Bosphorus Strait and subsequently to the Aegean Sea (an extension of the Mediterranean Sea) through the Dardanelles Strait. The Turkish straits system, which includes the Dardanelles, Bosphorus, and the Sea of Marmara, acts as a transitional zone between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Additionally, the Black Sea is linked to the Sea of Azov through the Strait of Kerch.
• Surrounding Mountains: The Black Sea is encircled by several mountain ranges: the Pontic Mountains to the south, the Caucasus Mountains to the east, and the Crimean Mountains to the north.
• Inflowing Rivers: The Black Sea receives water from major rivers, primarily the Danube (the second-longest river in Europe after the Volga), along with the Dnieper and Dniester rivers.

Solar Radiation Decline in India

Why in News?

As the urgency regarding climate change rises, renewable energy sources like solar power are becoming crucial. A recent study conducted by scientists at the India Meteorological Department (IMD) indicates a troubling trend: the amount of solar radiation available for conversion into electricity by solar panels is declining in numerous locations across India.

What are the Key Highlights of the Study?

Aerosol Load:

• Increased aerosol levels due to carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion and dust are contributing to the decrease in solar radiation.
• Aerosols absorb sunlight and redirect it away from the ground, while also facilitating the development of dense clouds that obstruct sunlight.
• The efficiency of solar panels is directly affected by the amount of sunlight they receive.

Decline in Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Potential:

• Widespread decline in SPV potential has been observed across all monitored locations, including major cities like Ahmedabad, Chennai, and New Delhi.
• India's largest solar parks in Gujarat and Rajasthan are also experiencing reductions in SPV potential.

Global Solar Radiation (GR) over India:

• GR is the total solar radiation received per unit area on the Earth's surface, varying regionally.
• Maximum GR occurs in northwest India and inland peninsular regions, while minimum levels are found in the extreme north and northeast.
• Atmospheric turbidity and cloudiness are identified as key factors for the reduction in GR.

Diffuse Radiation (DR):

• Diffuse radiation is solar radiation that has been scattered by atmospheric particles.
• Clear skies allow a high percentage of solar radiation to reach the ground, while cloudy or turbid atmospheres lead to higher diffuse radiation.
• A significant increase in DR has been noted in over 50% of monitoring stations, particularly in northwest and parts of peninsular India.

• Solar Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun that can be transformed into useful energy forms, such as heat and electricity.
• Aerosols: Tiny particles suspended in gases or liquids, which can be either natural (e.g., sea salt, volcanic gas) or artificial (e.g., smoke from burning fossil fuels).

What are the Implications for India's Solar Power Goals?

Current Scenario:

• India's current solar power capacity is around 81 GW, representing roughly 17% of total electricity generation.
• India ranks 4th globally in renewable energy capacity, including wind and solar power.

Ambitious Targets:

• India aims to source approximately 500 GW from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, with at least 280 GW expected from solar power.
• This requires an annual addition of around 40 GW of solar capacity until 2030.

Challenges:

• Despite ambitious targets, annual solar capacity additions have been limited to about 13 GW in the past five years.
• The COVID-19 pandemic has hindered progress, impacting expected additions of 25-40 GW in upcoming years.
• Other challenges include land acquisition issues, grid integration difficulties, slow rooftop solar growth, and limited storage technology availability.

What are the Government Initiatives Related to Solar Energy?

• Production Linked Incentive Scheme for High-Efficiency Solar PV Modules.
• Solar Park Scheme.
• PM-KUSUM initiative.
• Rooftop Solar Programme.
• International Solar Alliance (ISA).

Way Forward

• Analyze the types of aerosols that contribute most to the decline and implement targeted policies.
• Collaborate with local authorities to address regional pollution hotspots.
• Promote bifacial solar panels that can capture sunlight from both sides, enhancing energy generation even with diffused light.
• Encourage domestic manufacturing of solar panels to reduce import reliance and create green jobs.
• Partner with international research organizations to share best practices on mitigating air pollution's impact on solar radiation.
• Develop AI-powered robotic systems for automated cleaning of solar panels, particularly in arid regions, to maintain efficiency.
• Implement building codes that require new commercial and government buildings to install rooftop solar panels.