Guptas: Caste system, Position of women | History Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Social Structure and Changes During the Gupta Period

• The Gupta period in ancient India was marked by significant changes in social structure, as reflected in various sources like Faxian's accounts, coins, seals, and other contemporary literature. The period saw both positive and negative transformations in society.
• Legal texts of the time largely built upon the Dharmashastra of Manu, with notable contributions from figures like Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati, and Katyayana. These texts shaped the legal and social framework of the era.

Varna System and Social Order:

• Society was divided into four varnas: Brahmana (priests and scholars), Kshatriya (warriors and rulers), Vaisya (merchants and landowners), and Sudra (laborers and service providers).
• Each varna had its own set of prescribed functions and rights, forming the ideal social order that the state was expected to uphold.
• Even newly emerging small states were expected to recognize and maintain this varna-based social hierarchy.
• During this period, the supremacy of the Brahmanas increased significantly. The Gupta rulers, originally of Vaisya status, were reinterpreted by Brahmanas as Kshatriyas, enhancing their legitimacy.

Brahmana Landlords and Settlements:

• The Gupta kings, supported by the Brahmanas, received large-scale land grants, which included administrative rights and tax exemptions. This led to the emergence of a new class of Brahmana landlords.
• Land was often granted to individual Brahmanas or large groups of Brahmanas, encouraging settlement in remote areas. These settlements, known as Brahmadiyas and Agraharas, spread the idea of a varna-divided social order.
• Brahmanas, associated with Sanskritic learning and priestly functions, became closely connected with royal power. Even rulers who favored Buddhism, Jainism, or other sects continued to patronize highly learned Brahmanas.

Untouchables and Social Exclusion:

• Despite the four varnas, there were groups excluded from this system, known as the antyajas or untouchables. These groups, such as the Chandalas and Charmakaras, were considered impure, and their presence was often restricted.
• The number of untouchables, particularly Chandalas, increased significantly during this period. They lived outside villages and engaged in unclean occupations like scavenging or butchery.
• The Brahmanical order thus maintained a miserable condition for many social groups, highlighting the disparity between ideal and real societal conditions.

Dharmashastras and Social Realities:

• The Dharmashastras attempted to address the gap between the ideal and real society by offering fictitious explanations for the origins of various castes or jatis, often attributing their status to varna-samkara (inter-marriage between varnas).
• They also introduced the concept of apadharma, allowing varnas to take up duties outside their prescribed roles during times of distress, acknowledging the practical realities of society.

Women and Shudras in Society:

• The position of women, particularly in higher varnas, was generally low. While some women, like the Vakataka queen Prabhavatigupta, held power, most were expected to adhere to strict norms set by Brahmanical texts, often relegating them to roles similar to Sudras.
• Shudras experienced some improvements during this period. They were allowed to listen to the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas, worship new deities like Krishna, and perform certain domestic rites, reflecting a change in their economic status.
• However, the varna system faced challenges. Texts like the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata indicated tensions among different varnas, suggesting opposition from Vaishyas and Shudras.
• In contrast, the Anushashana Parva depicted Shudras as antagonistic towards the king, highlighting the complexities and conflicts within the varna system.

Caste Proliferation

The proliferation of castes into numerous sub-castes in ancient India was influenced by several factors:

• Assimilation of Foreigners: A large number of foreigners were assimilated into Indian society, with each group being considered a distinct Hindu caste. Many of these foreigners were conquerors and were thus granted the status of Kshatriyas.
• Example of the Huns: The Huns, who arrived in India around the late fifth century, were eventually recognized as one of the thirty-six clans of Rajputs. Some Rajputs today still bear the title "Huns." The Huns were given a semi-Kshatriya status (vratya Kshatriya) because they could not be considered of pure Kshatriya origin.
• Absorption of Tribes: Many tribal peoples were absorbed into Brahmanical society through land grants, leading to an increase in the number of castes. The ruling chiefs of these tribes were often ascribed a respectable origin, while most of the rest of the tribal people were given a low origin, effectively turning each tribe into a caste within Hindu society.
• Inter-marriages (Varna-samkara): Various jatis or groups also originated through inter-marriages between different varnas.
• Emergence of New Castes: Transfers of land or land revenues may have given rise to new castes, such as the Kayasthas (scribes), who began to undermine the monopoly of the Brahmanas in this role.

Untouchability

Untouchability became more pronounced during this period, with the chandalas emerging in society as early as the fifth century B.C. The sin associated with touching a chandala could be expiated through penance. By the fifth century A.D., the number of chandalas had increased significantly, and their disabilities were so glaring that they attracted the attention of the Chinese traveler Fa-hien.

• Fa-hien's Observations: Fa-hien noted that chandalas lived outside the village and dealt in meat and flesh. He also observed that whenever chandalas entered towns or marketplaces, they would strike a piece of wood to announce their arrival, allowing others to avoid touching them and becoming polluted.
• Untouchability in South India: In South India, the concept of untouchability seems to have emerged during the late Sangam period. A work called the Acharakkovai mentioned that water touched by a pulaiya was considered defiled and unfit for consumption by higher caste people. It also stated that even glancing at a pulaiya was polluting. The Tamil epics also reference the practice of untouchability. For example, in the Manimekalai, Brahmanas are advised not to touch Aputtiran, the son of a Brahmana woman and a Shudra male, to avoid pollution.

Faxian and His Observations

• Purpose of Pilgrimages: Faxian and other pilgrims aimed to provide Chinese Buddhists with opportunities to visualize places and events related to the Buddha's life, making their accounts of Indian society in the 5th century brief and focused.
• Depiction of Indian Society: Faxian presents an idealized picture of Indian society, describing its people as happy, content, and living in peace and prosperity. He notes the absence of household registration and magistrate oversight, with farmers on royal land required to give a portion of their produce to the king.
• Social Structure: Faxian observes the prevalence of the joint family system, a key feature of Hindu caste society.

The Position of Women in Society

• Royal Women: Royal and elite women are depicted on coins and seals, such as queens on coins of Chandragupta I and his wife Kumaradevi. Queens appear on the reverse of coins, often associated with the ashvamedha sacrifice.
• Matrimonial Alliances: Queens are mentioned in Gupta inscriptions, indicating their political significance. Queen Prabhavatigupta is noted for her political power during the reigns of three Vakataka rulers.
• Gift Giving by Women: Some royal women, like Prabhavatigupta, made grants in their own right, reflecting their influence. Inscriptions document gifts made by queens at the request of chiefs.
• Stri-dhana: The law books expand the concept of stri-dhana, detailing various types of gifts and their significance in a woman's life.
• Women Education: Vatsyayana highlights the education of princesses and elite women in shastras, with 64 branches of knowledge recommended for women.

Marriage Practices and Gender Roles:

• Marriage Age: Dharmashastra literature reflects a trend towards lowering the marriage age for girls, with some texts recommending marriage before puberty. However, Vatsyayana's Kamasutra suggests a more mature bride and groom.
• Polygyny: Polygynous marriages among kings are well-documented, with the Kamasutra indicating that polygyny was also common among non-royal elites, particularly as land acquisition increased.
• Duties of Wives: According to the Kamasutra and Katyayana Smriti, a good wife is expected to serve her husband diligently, manage household affairs, and be devoted to him. The Kamasutra also emphasizes the importance of a wife maintaining harmony with co-wives.
• Courtesans and Prostitution: The Kamasutra and Sanskrit literature depict courtesans (ganikas) with a mix of admiration and critique. While they are celebrated for their beauty and accomplishments, their status remains lower due to their commercial sexual relationships. The ordinary prostitute's life, in contrast, lacks the glamour associated with ganikas.
• Adultery: Adultery by women is viewed negatively in Dharmashastra texts, with various penances prescribed. The Kamasutra, however, takes a more pragmatic view of sexual relations between men and married women. Social status plays a significant role in the consequences of adultery.
• Widowhood and Sati: Sati, the practice of widow immolation, emerges during Gupta times, with examples found in inscriptions. Widow remarriage is generally discouraged, although some texts allow it under specific circumstances. The rights of children born to remarried widows and the property rights of such widows are also discussed in ancient texts.

Labour and Slavery

Forms of Labour:

• The texts describe various forms of hired labour, including tasks such as farming, field watching, harvesting, cattle tending, craft production, and household work.

Payment of Wages:

• The Brihaspati and Narada Smritis outline specific rates and regulations for the payment of wages, which could be made in cash or kind.
• Payment in kind could involve sharing items like grain, milk, or domesticated animals.
• The Narada Smriti stipulates that wages must be paid at a fixed time according to the agreement, whether at the beginning, middle, or end of the work. If wages were not pre-determined, the worker was entitled to one-tenth of the profit.
• The Brihaspati Smriti states that a farmer's servant was entitled to one-fifth of the crop along with food and clothing, or one-third of the crop.
• It is important to note that these are prescriptions and not reflections of prevailing practices.

Forced Labour (Vishti) and Slavery:

• Forced labour(vishti) became more prevalent during this period.
• Its inclusion alongside taxes in land grant inscriptions suggests that it was viewed as a source of income for the state, akin to a tax paid by the people.
• The concentration of inscriptions referring to vishti in regions like Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar indicates its higher prevalence in these areas.
• References to slaves are found in contemporary Dharmashastras(Law Books).
• The Narada Smriti identifies fifteen types of slaves, including prisoners of war, debt bondsmen, voluntary enslavement, and those born of a slave woman.

Slave as Property:

• Slaves were considered property and could be passed down to the descendants of their owners.
• They were commonly mentioned as domestic servants or personal attendants.
• A child born to a slave woman in the master’s household was also considered the master’s slave.
• The Narada Smriti allowed for the pledging or mortgaging of slaves, and masters could hire out their services to others.
• It also prescribed severe punishments, such as the amputation of a foot, for those guilty of abducting a slave woman.

Manumission of Slaves:

• The Narada Smriti addresses the manumission of slaves, stating that a slave born in the house, bought, obtained, or inherited could only be freed at the master’s discretion.
• The ceremony of manumission involved the master removing a jar of water from the slave’s shoulder and breaking it, followed by sprinkling parched grain and flowers over the slave’s head while repeating, “You are no longer a dasa,” three times.

Other Aspects of Social Life

• There was a significant disparity between the lifestyles of wealthy city-dwellers and those living in villages.
• Wealthy urbanites, exemplified by the nagaraka, enjoyed lives of comfort and cultural refinement, as depicted in the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana.
• However, not all city residents could afford such a luxurious lifestyle.
• Sports and amusements, including gambling,animal fights,athletics,gymnastics,dancing, and music concerts, played a significant role in social life.
• The early form of chess, known as caturanga, emerged during this period, representing the four divisions of military.
• Contrary to the belief that India was primarily vegetarian, meat consumption was common, along with the drinking of wine and chewing of betel-leaf.
• The joint family system, a fundamental aspect of Hindu caste society, was prevalent at the time.
• Despite various changes during the Gupta period, it cannot be conclusively deemed a time of substantial progress. Developments such as the strengthening of the varna and caste system, deteriorating conditions for untouchables, widening gaps between the rich and poor, and the declining status of women raise questions about the portrayal of this period as a golden age.