Guptas: Decline of Urban Centres | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Crafts Production in Ancient India

Crafts production during the Gupta period was a vibrant and essential part of the economy, as evidenced by numerous inscriptions and seals that mention artisans, merchants, and guilds. However, while crafts and trade were thriving during this period, some historians argue that there was a decline in these activities after the Gupta period, leading to the deterioration of towns and cities and a greater reliance on agricultural production.

Range of Crafts Production:

• Crafts production encompassed a wide array of items, from everyday domestic goods to luxury items. Ordinary items included:
• Earthen pots
• Furniture
• Baskets
• Metal tools for domestic use
• Luxury items included:
• Jewelry made of gold, silver, and precious stones
• Ivory objects
• Fine cotton and silk clothes
• Other costly items

Trade and Local Manufacturing:

• Some luxury items were obtained through trade, while others were produced locally. The Gupta period's luxury objects, often not found in archaeological excavations, are mentioned in literary texts and inscriptions.
• For instance, different varieties of silk cloth, such as Kshauma and Pattavastra, are referenced in texts from this period.

Decline in Trade and Commerce:

• Evidence from inscriptions, such as a fifth-century inscription from Mandasor in western Malwa, highlights the decline in trade and commerce. The inscription refers to a guild of silk weavers who migrated from south Gujarat to the Malwa region.
• Texts like Amarakosha and Brihat Samhita provide lists of items, their Sanskrit names, and different categories of craftsmen involved in their production.
• Dharmashastra texts discuss partnerships in craft production and trade, as well as the apprenticeship of novices with master craftsmen.

Archaeological Evidence:

• To understand the quantity and variety of objects manufactured during this period, one must rely on archaeological findings from sites like Taxila,Ahichchhatra,Mathura,Rajghat,Kausambi, and Pataliputra.
• These sites have yielded a range of craft products, including earthen wares, terracottas, beads made of different stones, glass objects, and metal items.
• Compared to the preceding Saka Kushana period, crafts production in the Gupta period experienced a setback.

References to Artisans and Traders:

• Vakataka inscriptions contain references to artisans, traders, and occupational groups. For example, the Indore plates of Pravarasena II mention a merchant named Chandra who bought and donated half a village to Brahmanas.
• The Thalner copper plates record the gift of Kamsakaraka and Suvarnakara, villages associated with bronze workers and goldsmiths.
• Other inscriptions mention various specialized crafts, such as brickmaking, goldwork, salt manufacture, and iron working.

Flourishing Crafts in the Gupta Period

• Metalworking: Metalworking was considered one of the 64 arts in the Kamasutra. The Amarakosha lists various metals, including gold, silver, iron, copper, brass, and lead. The Brihaspati Smriti mentions metal workers dealing with gold, silver, and base metals. Archaeological sites have uncovered numerous iron objects, and the iron pillar at Mehrauli demonstrates the high level of metallurgical skill during this period. A notable development in metal technology was the production of seals and statues, particularly of the Buddha. Contemporary literature also attests to the widespread use of jewelry by the people of the time.
• Pottery Making: Pottery continued to be a fundamental aspect of industrial production. While the elegant black-polished ware fell out of favor, an ordinary red ware with a brownish slip was produced in large quantities. Some pottery was enhanced with mica, giving vessels a metallic finish. Pottery remained a basic part of industrial production, although the elegant black-polished ware was no longer used.
• Ivory Work and Stone Cutting: Ivory work was highly valued, as was stone cutting and carving. Sculpture gained significant popularity during this period. The cutting, polishing, and preparation of various precious stones, such as jasper, agate, carnelian, quartz, and lapis lazuli, were also associated with foreign trade.
• Other Specialised Crafts: Other specialized crafts included coin casting, metal engraving, terracotta work, and wood carving. Artistic remains indicate the presence of architects, builders, stone masons, sculptors, mural painters, and laborers. The Ajanta paintings feature depictions of royal palaces and mansions belonging to the wealthy.
• Cloth Works: The Amarakosha mentions various terms related to cotton textiles, including weaver, loom, thread, coarse, and fine fabric. Evidence of stitched clothes can be observed in Indian sculpture from the early centuries CE. The Ajanta paintings portray elaborate garments, suggesting the skills of tailors and embroiderers. The Mandasor inscription refers to the migration and activities of a prosperous guild of silk weavers.
• Ornamental and Cosmetic Works: Beautiful ornaments are described in literature and depicted in sculptures and Ajanta paintings. The Amarakosha lists various types of precious and semi-precious stones. Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita discusses the qualities of diamonds, rubies, and pearls. Ornaments were also crafted from coral and conch shell. Descriptions of the life of the nagaraka in the Kamasutra and inkavyaliterature suggest the existence of makers of garlands, cosmetics, unguents, and perfumes.

Inequality Among Craftsmen

• Not all craftsmen were equal in terms of wealth and social status. For instance, there was a significant disparity between a goldsmith with a shop in a city like Ujayini and a family of basket makers in a village. This distinction is reflected in the Dharmasastras written by the Brahmanas during this period.
• The Dharmasastras assign different ranks to various groups of craftsmen. Although craftsmen and artisans held a status lower than that of the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, each group of craftsmen typically formed a jati or caste based on their craft.
• For example, potters (Kumbhakaras) and goldsmiths (Suvarnakaras) constituted separate castes. While the caste system was not overly simplistic, it was common for individuals practicing the same craft to belong to the same jati or caste. Despite these differences, the movement of items for trade from one place to another continued, similar to earlier periods.

Guilds

• Guilds, known in ancient times as sreni, were organizations that supported the work of craftsmen and traders. These guilds played a crucial role in the production of goods and commerce. While the term "sreni" is often translated as "guild," its exact meaning can vary.
• Guilds, referred to as nigama or sreni, were significant institutions in the manufacturing and commercial sectors. They operated with a high degree of autonomy, with the government generally respecting their internal regulations. These regulations were typically formulated by a larger body known as the corporation of guilds, of which each guild was a member.
• Each guild was led by a president called Prathama or Pravara. Some guilds, like those of silk weavers, had their own corporations responsible for major projects like temple endowments. The state was expected to protect these guilds and honor their customs, while guild members had to adhere to the organization’s norms, facing penalties if they did not.
• The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis provide insights into the structure and functions of guilds, mentioning roles such as the guild chief and executive officers. Guild laws were likely documented in writing, and the Brihaspati Smriti suggests that guilds had the authority to administer justice to their members, subject to the king’s approval. Guilds also engaged in charitable activities, such as building shelters for travelers and constructing public facilities like assembly houses and gardens.

Inscriptions reveal thez significance of guild chiefs in local administration and the existence of joint corporate bodies involving merchant bankers, caravan merchants, and artisans.

Migration of Craft Guilds:

• The Mandasor inscription highlights the migration and activities of a successful guild of silk weavers. The Indore copper plate from the era of Skandagupta indicates that the guild of oil manufacturers was responsible for supplying oil to the Surya temple, even if the guild relocated. These instances illustrate the reality of craft guild migration.
• Besides the Mandasor inscription, the prosperity of guilds is evident from inscriptions that describe guilds as donors and bankers. The Gadhwa inscription from the time of Chandragupta II notes an investment of 20 dinaras in a guild led by Matridasa, intended for the benefit of Brahmanas. Other inscriptions from Gadhwa during the reign of Kumaragupta I record investments with guilds for the upkeep of sattras (almshouses).
• The Indore inscription from the period of Skandagupta documents an endowment by a Brahmana named Devavishnu for maintaining a perpetual lamp in a Surya temple at Indore. This temple was constructed by two local merchants,Achalavarman and Bhrikunthasimha, who invested money with a guild of oil manufacturers led by Jivanta. The guild was responsible for ensuring a steady supply of oil for the temple lamps, regardless of any migration.

Money Economy

Decline in the Money Economy:

• R.S. Sharma argues that during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, there was a decline in the money economy.
• He notes that while the Guptas issued many gold coins, they produced comparatively fewer silver and copper coins.
• It was previously believed that the Vakatakas did not issue any coins, but recent discoveries have proven otherwise.

Money Lending Practices:

• Ancient texts provide insights into money-lending practices of the time.
• The Narada Smriti refers to money acquired through usury as "spotted wealth" and "black wealth."
• Dharmashastra texts outline detailed rules concerning usury, including:
• Contractual Agreements: Emphasis on the importance of drawing up contracts for loans.
• Local Custom: The role of local customs in determining interest rates.
• Pledges: Various types of pledges that could be accepted as security for loans.

Interest Rates:

• The general interest rate for secured loans is set at 15 percent per annum.
• Interest rates for unsecured loans are significantly higher and vary based on the borrower's varna, with lower varnas paying higher rates.
• Interest rates also fluctuate depending on the purpose of the loan.
• During the Mauryan period, high interest rates were charged on loans for overseas trade. However, these rates decreased over time, indicating increased confidence in overseas trade.
• The reduction in interest rates from earlier periods suggests greater availability of goods and a decline in profit margins.
• The Brihaspati Smriti states that if a piece of immovable property, such as land, has been enjoyed and has yielded more than the principal, the debtor should automatically recover the pledge.
• Defaulting on a loan has consequences that follow the debtor into the next life, according to the Narada Smriti, which states that a debtor may be born as a slave in the house of his creditor to repay the debt through labor.
• The detailed discussion of money-lending practices, including joint money-lending enterprises, indicates a context in which money was actively used, borrowed, and loaned for profit.

Trade

India maintained extensive trade links with Central, West, and Southeast Asia, as well as the Roman world, before the Gupta period. Over the centuries, trade routes connecting different regions within the country had been developing. The continuity of commercial activities during the Gupta period is evident, marking the concluding phase of the economic momentum that began earlier.

Gupta Trade Practices:

• The Gupta rulers, like their Kushana predecessors, minted various types of coins, demonstrating excellent craftsmanship, particularly in gold coins.
• These coins, made of copper, silver, and lead, were used for commercial exchange.
• The wealthy Buddhist Sangha participated in commercial activities, and in some regions of the Gupta Empire, merchants held high social positions.
• Two types of merchant representatives, the Nagarasresthi and the Sarthavaha, were associated with district administration in north Bengal.
• Seals from the Gupta period, found at Vaisali in north Bihar, indicate that merchants were a significant part of the city's population.
• The Faridpur plate of Gopachandra refers to prominent traders (pradhana-vyaparinah).
• Literary texts from the period describe brisk commercial activities in cities like Pataliputra and Ujjayini, where merchants from various countries were present.
• Rules for hiring conveyances like bullock carts and boats, as well as regulations for the return of sold goods, were laid down.
• There were also rules to protect the interests of traders and consumers, along with punishments for adulteration and non-delivery of goods.

Types of Merchants:

• In the Gupta period, two types of merchants were prominent:
• Sresthi: A settled merchant of high standing.
• Sarthavaha: A caravan trader.

Regulations and Trade Practices:

• Trade practices were governed by regulations laid down in the Narada Smriti and Brihaspati Smriti.
• Internal trade included a wide range of everyday commodities sold in village and town markets.
• Luxury goods were the principal items of long-distance trade.
• Compared to earlier periods, there was a decline in long-distance trade.

Indo-Roman Trade:

• Silk and spices were the main export articles in Indo-Roman trade.
• However, by the mid-sixth century, silk worms were secretly brought from China and introduced into the Byzantine Empire, impacting India’s trade with the West.
• Subsequent Arab expansion under the banner of Islam further disrupted India’s trade.

Shift in Trade Focus:

• Indian merchants began to rely more on Southeast Asian trade.
• The establishment of Indian trading stations in Southeast Asia diverted income to this region.
• Cosmas mentioned various ports on the western coast of India, such as Calliena (Kalyan), Sibor (Chaul), and markets in Male (Malabar), Parti, Mangarouth (Mangalor), Solapatana, Nalopatana (Necynda), and Pandopatana.
• Faxian referred to Tamralipti in Bengal as a significant trade center on the eastern coast.
• These ports and towns were connected with Persia, Arabia, Byzantium, Sri Lanka, China, and Southeast Asia.

Trade with China

• Faxian highlights the dangers of the maritime route between India and China.
• Monks traveling from India to China overland through Central Asia likely followed the paths used by caravan traders.
• Chinese historical records mention various goods from India, including rare gems, pearls, fine textiles (possibly muslin), saffron, spices like pepper, and aromatic substances.

Silk:

• Despite producing silk locally, India continued to import silk yarn and cloth from China and played a crucial role in trade networks that transported Chinese silk to the Mediterranean region.
• The demand for Chinese silk in India persisted because Indian artisans made silk from wild silkworm cocoons.
• The techniques for raising mulberry silk and unraveling threads from boiled cocoons were unknown in India until introduced by Central Asian immigrants in the 13th century.
• As a result, Indian silk was less soft and shiny than Chinese silk. Although Indian cotton textiles were exported, silk was not a significant export item in ancient times.
• The silk exported from India was likely imported from China.
• Even after advancements in Indian silk production during the medieval period, Chinese silk remained a luxury item in high demand. It was often included in gifts from Chinese emperors to foreign embassies.
• The playwright Kalidasa references wealthy individuals wearing garments made of chinamshuka(Chinese silk).

Connection with Southeast Asia

• During the 1st millennium CE, kingdoms emerged in regions such as Java, Sumatra, and Bali, with maritime trade playing a significant role in the economic life of the area.
• Sanskrit inscriptions began to appear in mainland and peninsular Southeast Asia around 500 CE.
• Early kings often traced their ancestry back to India in their genealogies. For example, traditional histories of Myanmar state that the earliest kingdom in the Irawaddy valley was founded by a dispossessed Indian prince.
• Cambodian tradition recounts the story of a Brahmana named Kaundinya who married a Cambodian princess.
• A 9th-century inscription from Dong Duong claims that the local rulers were descendants of sage Bhrigu from the Mahabharata.
• Buddhist and Hindu sculpture and architecture began to emerge in these regions during the 1st millennium.
• Inscriptions and gold images depicting the Buddha and Vishnu have been discovered in Kutei, Borneo.
• Artistic styles in Indo-China were influenced by Buddhist art from the Andhra region.
• The ports of South India played a crucial role in trade with Southeast Asia and China.
• The Tamil epics are set in cities such as Madurai, Kaveripumpattinam/Kaveripattinam, Vanji, and Kanchipuram.

Silppadikaram

• In the Silappadikaram, Manaikan, the father of Kannaki, is depicted as a ship captain residing in the prominent river port of Puhar.
• Kovalan is described as the son of a caravan trader.
• The Silappadikaram mentions a street in Madurai where cloth merchants sell various types of cloth made from cotton, hair, or silk.
• Weavers, known as karukas, brought fine silk and different kinds of cotton and woolen textiles to the markets of Kaveripattinam.
• The Silappadikaram also refers to Yavana craftsmen in cities, Yavanas living in their own quarters in Puhar, and Tamil kings hiring Yavana guards to protect their fortresses.
• Cotton cloth was another significant export from the south, with the Silappadikaram mentioning 32 varieties of cotton fabric. It describes kings sending ships loaded with eaglewood, silk, sandalwood, spices, and camphor during the early cool season.

Manimekalai

• The Manimekalai contains narratives of merchants embarking on sea voyages to Sri Lanka and Java.
• In the Jatakas, Manimekalai is portrayed as a goddess who safeguards and saves seafarers.
• The epics also depict the extravagant lifestyle of Indian merchants.
• Spices like pepper and cardamom continued to be produced and exported from the Kerala region.
• However, due to rising demand, these spices were also imported from Southeast Asia and then sent westward.
• Evidence of coastal trade is linked to thriving settlements along the coast of Sri Lanka, such as Mantai in the north and Kirinda and Godavaya in the south.

Decline of Trade in the Gupta and Post-Gupta Period

During the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, a notable economic shift was the decline of both internal and external trade.

Decline in Foreign Trade

• Indian foreign trade reached its peak during the post-Mauryan period when India traded with the Roman Empire, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. However, a commercial decline began during the Gupta period and became more pronounced by the mid-sixth century A.D.
• The inflow of Roman coins into India ceased after the early centuries of the Christian era.
• Other evidence suggesting contact with the western world also became scarce.
• Furthermore, the Roman Empire eventually disintegrated.
• The rise of the Arabs and Persians as competitors in trade was detrimental to Indian merchants.
• Some Byzantine coins from up to the sixth century have been found in Andhra and Karnataka, but their numbers cannot be compared to the abundant hoards of early Roman coins.
• Silk and spices were significant items in the Indo-Byzantine trade.
• By the mid-sixth century A.D., Byzantium learned the art of cultivating silk worms, which adversely affected the silk trade.
• The migration of silk weavers from Gujarat and their shift to other occupations gained significance in this context.
• Gupta ties with Central Asia weakened, and whatever remained of contacts with Central Asia and Western Asia was completely obliterated by the Huna invasions.
• Coastal towns in India reportedly engaged in some trade with Southeast Asia and China, but this interaction did not appear to be intense.
• Although there is evidence of cultural influences spreading from India to Southeast Asia during early historical and early medieval times, there is no evidence of pottery, coins, or similar objects suggesting robust commercial interactions.
• Earlier, India had traded beads and other items with certain areas of Southeast Asia, but after the fourth century A.D., such trade diminished.
• Not much can be deduced from Indian delegations to China, as the number of such missions declined from the sixth century onward.
• Moreover, the reported Chinese coins and celadon ware found in Tamil Nadu date from the ninth century or later, and prior to that, there are no material remains indicating Indo-Chinese trade.

Decline in Long-Distance Internal Trade

• Long-distance internal trade also declined due to the weakening of connections between coastal towns and interior towns, as well as between towns and villages.
• The decay of towns, shrinkage in urban commodity production, and decline of trade were interconnected issues.
• The diminishing status of traders and merchants in society during this period also reflects the declining fortunes of trade and commerce.
• The rise of numerous self-sufficient units dominated by landed beneficiaries adversely impacted trade.
• In fact, a later work, the Kathasaritasagara, suggests that traders took forest routes to avoid multiple duty payments.
• Sea voyages and long-distance travels became taboo, which did not promote trade.
• However, trade in basic necessities such as salt and iron artifacts continued.
• These essential commodities were not available everywhere.
• Additionally, some long-distance trade occurred in prestigious luxury goods like precious stones, ivory, and horses, as there was a demand for such items among the aristocracy, chiefs, and kings.
• Consequently, for several centuries, large-scale organized trade was replaced by itinerant petty traders, pedlars, and trickle trade.