Guptas: Indian Feudalism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Indian Feudalism

Prof. R.S. Sharma and the Theory of Feudalism in Ancient India:

• Prof. R.S. Sharma is a key proponent of the theory of feudalism in ancient India. He uses the term "feudalism" to describe the socio-economic formation during the post-Gupta period.

Characteristics of Feudalism:

• Feudalism, as described by Sharma, emerges in a predominantly agrarian economy marked by a distinct class of landlords and a class of servile peasantry.
• In this system, landlords extract surplus through methods that are social, religious, or political in nature, referred to as extra-economic.

Land Grants and the Feudal Model:

• The origins and development of the feudal model can be traced to land grants given to Brahmins starting in the first century AD.
• During the Gupta era, there was significant population growth in northern India, which continued in the subsequent periods.

Role of Brahmins and Temples:

• Brahmins and temples received land revenues not for civic and military services but for spiritual duties.
• They were granted fiscal powers and administrative rights to maintain law and order and collect fines from criminals, highlighting their important role in the socio-economic structure.

Emergence of Landlords:

• The formation of a class of landlords occurred unevenly across the country, with its initial rise in Maharashtra around the beginning of the Christian era.
• The process of land grants began in remote, backward, and tribal areas to discover new income sources for Brahmins and cultivate untamed land.
• As the ruling class recognized its value, the practice expanded to Madhyadesa, the civilized region of India, which was the center of Brahmanical culture and civilization.

Transformation of Sudras:

• From the Gupta period onward, Sudras, who were considered the common slaves of the three higher varnas, became peasants. This transformation was directly related to the socio-economic aspect of the feudal model in India.
• Sudra laborers were given land in more established districts, and a significant portion of the tribal peasantry in backward regions was integrated into the Brahmanical system through land concessions and labeled as Sudras.
• Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang and later al-Beruni confirmed this characterization of Sudras as farmers.

Phases of the Indian Feudal Model:

• Land endowments to temples and Brahmins began in the Gupta era and continued for the next two centuries.
• During the reign of the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas, the number and nature of such grants changed significantly.
• Initially, only usufructuary rights were granted, but from the eighth century onwards, donees began receiving proprietary rights as well.
• The land grant process peaked in the 11th and 12th centuries when northern India was divided into various political and economic divisions mostly owned by secular and religious donees, treating the gift villages almost like fiefs.

Different Theories on the Feudal Model in India

• D. D. Kosambi significantly contributed to the understanding of the Indian feudal model within the context of socio-economic history.
• In his influential work,An Introduction to the Study of Indian History,first published in 1956,he proposed that the emergence of the feudal model in Indian history was a two-way process,originating from both above and below.
• The first stage, termed the primary phase,involved direct relationships between an overlord and his tributary or autonomous vassals,without the predominance of an intermediary land-owning class.
• The second stage marked a more complex period with the rise of rural landowners as powerful intermediaries between the ruling class and the peasantry.
• This phase,spanning from the fourth to the seventeenth centuries,featured the establishment of samantas as feudatories,leading to administrative decentralization and the transformation of communal property into feudal property.
• Kosambi's work sparked significant discussions in Indian historiography,highlighting the profound social and cultural changes during this period.
• Some viewed these developments as medieval influences,suggesting a similarity between feudalism and medievalism in the Indian context.

Indian Feudalism Theory

• Professor R.S. Sharma made significant contributions to the study of the feudal model in India through his 1965 book Indian Feudalism.
• After the fall of the Gupta dynasty, Sharma observed a decline in long-distance trade between India and various regions worldwide. This decline led to a decrease in urbanization and a shift towards a more agricultural economy.
• In this context, while financial resources were not scarce, there was a lack of money. With coins unavailable, the state began compensating its grantees and employees, including Brahmanas, with land.
• Over time, the state also transferred increasing control over cultivating peasants to a new class of “intermediaries.” This shift reduced the peasants’ status to that of serfs, similar to their medieval European counterparts.
• A key aspect of R.S. Sharma’s Indian feudal model is the growth of the intermediary class through government intervention, particularly in the form of grants.
• In his later works, Sharma built upon this foundation by introducing concepts such as the expansion of the scribe caste, which eventually solidified into the Kayastha caste. This development was necessary for documenting state grants.
• The process of land allocations to intermediaries continued until the 11th century, when trade and urbanization began to revive.

Significance of the Indian Feudal Model

The Indian feudal model holds substantial historical significance for various reasons:
Agrarian Expansion and Land Grants:

• In regions like central India, Orissa, and eastern Bengal, land grants were instrumental in bringing previously uncultivated land under cultivation. This trend was also observed in South India.
• The feudal era was characterized by considerable agrarian expansion.

Role of Brahmins and Technological Advancement:

• Innovative Brahmins were appointed to key positions in underdeveloped native territories to introduce advanced agricultural techniques.
• Ceremonies sponsored by priests, along with certain tribal beliefs, contributed to the material advancement of these regions.

Administrative Framework and Social Order:

• Land grants provided the administrative framework necessary for maintaining law and order in the regions, with all powers being transferred to the recipients.
• Religious beneficiaries fostered a sense of devotion to the established order among the populace in both developed and underdeveloped areas.
• Secular vassals supported their rulers by managing their fiefdoms and providing military assistance during conflicts.

Brahmanization and Cultural Assimilation:

• Land grants facilitated the Brahmanization and assimilation of tribal peoples by introducing them to writing systems, calendars, art, literature, and a more elevated way of life.
• In this way, the feudal model contributed to the unification of the nation.

Criticism of the Feudal Model in India

The legitimacy of the feudal model in medieval India has faced scrutiny and criticism from various historians and scholars. Some key points of criticism include:

Independent Peasant Production:

• Some historians argue that peasant production during medieval times was independent or free, with peasants having control over the tools and processes of production.
• It is suggested that the social and economic structure was stable, with minimal changes in agricultural production practices.

Surplus Distribution:

• Critics contend that the main issues were related to the distribution and redistribution of surplus rather than the means of production.
• The state’s appropriation of agrarian surplus was seen as the primary tool of exploitation.

Trade and Economic Stability:

• Some historians challenge the notion that trade was declining and that there was a shortage of money during the period of Indian feudalism.
• D. N. Jha criticized R. S. Sharma for overly attributing the development of the feudal model in India to the lack of long-distance external trade.

Kaliyuga Evidence and Crisis:

• Historians within the Indian feudalism school, such as D. N. Jha, have pointed out discrepancies in the evidence of Kaliyuga and the anticipated 'crisis'.
• B. P. Sahu questioned the validity of Kaliyuga evidence as an indicator of crisis, suggesting it was more about a reinterpretation of kingship and Brahmanical ideology.

Conclusion

• During the Gupta period, significant changes occurred in the agrarian structure of society. One notable development was the rise of priestly landlords at the expense of local peasants. The practice of granting land to priests and officials became widespread during this time. Although the land grant system was initially established by the Satavahanas, it became a common practice during the Gupta period.
• Brahmin priests were granted tax-free land and given the authority to collect rent from peasants. The ownership of such land became hereditary, allowing these state beneficiaries to act as virtual rulers of their granted land. They had the power to administer law and impose punishments without any interference from the state. As a result, many Brahmins became wealthy landlords, often oppressing the peasants. Local tribal peasants were reduced to a lower status, and in central and western India, peasants were subjected to forced labor.
• On the positive side, significant amounts of wasteland were brought under cultivation, and improved agricultural knowledge was introduced by Brahmin beneficiaries in the tribal areas of central India. However, due to the large inequalities that emerged, some scholars argue that the Gupta age may be considered a Golden Age, particularly for the upper classes. Romila Thapar, for instance, suggests that the description of the Gupta period as a 'Golden Age' is accurate when referring to the upper classes.