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Martand Sun Temple Glows in Tricolor

Martand Sun Temple Illuminated for Independence Day

• Location: Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) 
• Event: The Martand Sun Temple was lit up with the tricolors of the Indian flag as part of the Independence Day celebrations. 
• Community Response: This event filled local residents and tourists with pride and joy, attracting large crowds to witness this historic moment. 

Key Facts About Martand Sun Temple

• Construction: Built around 1200 years ago by King Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty, who ruled Kashmir from 725 AD to 753 AD. The temple was dedicated to Martand, the Sun god. 
• Architecture: The temple featured grand architecture with influences from Egyptian, Greek, and Gandharan styles, massive grey stone walls, and a courtyard filled with river water. 
• Historical Reference: The temple's history is documented in the Rajatarangini, a 12th-century chronicle by Kalhana. 

Architectural Features

• Chambers: The temple had three main chambers – the mandapa (hall), garbhagriha (sanctum), and antralaya (inner sanctum). 
• Pillars: Ruins suggest the temple was surrounded by a peristyle of 84 pillars, typical of Kashmiri temple architecture. 
• Construction Material: The use of lime mortar, unusual for its time, indicates the involvement of Byzantine architects. 

Cultural Assimilation

• Architectural Fusion: The temple’s design reflects a blend of Classical Greco-Roman, Buddhist-Gandhara, and North Indian styles, showcasing Kashmir’s historical connections with various cultures and empires. 

Association with Harsha

• Historical Note: King Harsha of the Lohara dynasty, known for looting temples for treasure, spared the Martand Temple, unlike others he desecrated. 

Destruction

• Historical Accounts: The temple was partially demolished by Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri, who ruled Kashmir from 1389 to 1413. This is debated among historians. 
• Current State: The temple stands partially intact, with its grey walls and carved deities still visible. It is protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) as a “monument of national importance.” 

Kashmiri Temple Architecture

• Unique Features: Trefoil arches (influenced by Gandhara art), cellular layout (enclosed courtyard), straight-edged pyramidal roof, column walls, triangular pediments (Greek influence), and more numerous steps compared to other styles. 
• Historical Development: Temple architecture peaked under the Karakota and Utpala dynasties, showing a blend of various foreign styles due to its location on important trade routes. 

Conclusion:

•  The illumination of the Martand Sun Temple in tricolors during Independence Day celebrations highlights its historical and cultural significance. 
•  This event not only celebrates the temple's rich heritage but also serves as a reminder of Kashmir’s unique architectural legacy. 
•  The Martand Sun Temple stands as a testament to the artistic and historical grandeur of ancient Kashmir and continues to be a symbol of national pride and historical preservation. 

Colonisation of Indigenous Tribes

Introduction

 The recent passing of Kiingi Tuheitia Pootatau Te Wherowhero VII, the Māori King of New Zealand, has shed light on the ongoing struggles faced by Māori tribes, both historically and in contemporary times. 

Historical Context

Kiingitanga Movement

•  The Kiingitanga movement, founded in 1858, aimed to unite Māori tribes in opposition to British colonisation. 
•  This movement was a crucial resistance effort against land sales to non-Indigenous people and inter-tribal conflicts. 

Various Indigenous Tribes Colonised By Europeans:

(a) Māoris in New Zealand

•  Transitioned from Māori dominance to European (Pākehā) control between 1769 and 1914. 
•  Experienced conflicts over land ownership and control, including notable clashes such as: 
• Wairau Valley clash (1843)
• Flagstaff War (1845-46)
• Waikato War (1863-64)

(b) Aboriginals in Australia

•  Colonised under the legal premise of ‘terra nullius’, meaning land belonging to no one. 
•  Suffered population declines due to introduced diseases and random killings, including massacres like the Myall Creek massacre (1838). 

(c) Red Indians of North America

•  European colonisation began in 1492, leading to a significant decrease in Native American populations due to diseases and conflicts. 
•  By the late 19th century, Indigenous populations had plummeted to fewer than 238,000, a stark contrast to pre-Columbian numbers. 
•  Notable incidents include the Gnadenhutten Massacre (1782). 

(d) Boer War in South Africa

•  A conflict between the British Army and Boer settlers of Dutch and German descent, occurring from 1899 to 1902. 

(e) African Massacres

• Namibia: German colonial forces suppressed Herero and Nama uprisings with extreme violence. 
• Congo: King Leopold II’s regime inflicted severe violence to enforce rubber quotas. 
• Libya: Italian colonial rule resulted in mass deaths of Bedouin and Senussi tribes through brutal counterinsurgency tactics. 

What is Colonialism?

•  Colonialism refers to the control exerted by one power over a dependent area or people, often involving subjugation, exploitation, and the imposition of cultural values. 
• Scope: By 1914, most of the world’s nations had been colonised by European powers, including Portugal, Spain, England, the Netherlands, France, and Germany. 
• Examples: The British East India Company’s control over India and U.S. territorial expansion following independence. 

Remnants of Colonial Possession in the Modern World

• French Guiana:. European presence in South America, governed as a territorial collectivity of France. 
• Falkland Islands:. UK overseas territory claimed by Argentina (Las Malvinas), with the Falklands War (1982) highlighting the territorial dispute. 
• Réunion Islands:. French Overseas Territory settled in the 17th century. 
• Guam Islands:. U.S. military base in the North Pacific, acquired after the Spanish-American War of 1898. 
• British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT): Administered from London, located between East Africa and Indonesia. 

Present Day Challenges to Indigenous People

• Green Colonialism: Global North countries impose conservation models that displace Indigenous peoples from their lands to establish national parks, reinforcing colonial control. 
• Neocolonialism: Former colonial powers and emerging superpowers exert economic, political, and psychological control over regions, maintaining indirect dominance. Examples include U.S. interventions in Vietnam and Afghanistan. 
• Impact of Climate Change: Indigenous peoples face severe threats from climate change, endangering their traditional habitats, ecosystems, and cultural identities. 
• Encroachment on Right to Self-Determination: Indigenous communities are often denied the right to self-governance, as seen in West Papua under Indonesian control. 
• Forced Assimilation: Historical and ongoing practices of forcibly assimilating Indigenous peoples, such as Canada’s Indian Residential Schools, erode cultural identities. 
• Trespassing on Cultural Lands: Indigenous lands, rich in biodiversity and resources, are frequently appropriated, sold, or polluted, undermining Indigenous rights and environmental stewardship. 

Way Forward

• Restoration of Land Rights: Colonies like French Guiana, the Falkland Islands, Réunion, Guam, and BIOT should return to their original owners. Recognize and uphold the rights of local populations to self-determination. 
• Promote Inclusive Conservation Models: Shift from exclusionary conservation methods to inclusive approaches that respect Indigenous sovereignty and involve Indigenous peoples in decision-making processes. 
• End Forced Assimilation Practices: Implement restorative justice, support cultural revitalization programs, and ensure legal protections for Indigenous languages and traditions. 
• Protect Indigenous Lands and Resources: Enforce laws to safeguard Indigenous lands from illegal appropriation and resource exploitation. Advocate for fair land use policies that respect Indigenous rights and contribute to biodiversity conservation. 

Conclusion
The colonisation of Indigenous tribes by European powers has had a profound and lasting impact, characterized by displacement, exploitation, and cultural suppression. Addressing these ongoing issues requires a commitment to restoring land rights, adopting inclusive conservation practices, and ending forced assimilation. Recognizing and rectifying historical injustices while ensuring active Indigenous participation in decisions affecting their lands and cultures is essential for fostering global justice and sustainability. By committing to these principles, we can work towards building a more equitable and respectful future for all communities.

Company Rule in India

Company Rule refers to the period when the British East India Company governed India. Initially formed in 1757 as a trading body to facilitate commerce between India and Britain, the Company gradually extended its control over the entire Indian subcontinent, eventually leading to British sovereignty. 

 As the British established trade operations across India, they became increasingly involved in the country’s political landscape, gradually asserting control over various regions. This article aims to provide a detailed overview of Company Rule in India, tracing its historical progression from traders to sovereign rulers. 

Company Rule in India (1773-1858): Legislative Evolution and the Transition to Direct Governance 

• Company Rule (1773-1858): This period marked a crucial phase in India’s history, characterized by British oversight and regulation. 
• Oversight by Acts: The British Parliament enacted several acts to regulate the operations of the East India Company (EIC) during this time. 
• End of an Era: Company Rule came to an end in 1858 following the Sepoy Mutiny, leading to direct governance by the British Parliament. 
• Legislative Intervention: The British Parliament passed various laws to oversee the East India Company’s actions during this period. 

Company Rule in India (1773-1858): Evolution, Supremacy and the Dawn of Independence 

• Transition to Crown Rule: After nearly a century of Company Rule from 1773 to 1858, India transitioned into Crown Rule, signifying direct governance by the Queen of England. 
• Uprisings and Struggles: The Company Rule triggered a series of uprisings across India, which eventually led to a widespread struggle for independence. 
• Company Administration in Bengal: The Company, gaining “diwan” status in Bengal, gradually replaced local Nizam rule with its own administration. 
• Overview: This article provides insights into the pivotal period of Company Rule in India and its historical significance. 

Company Rule: A Historical Timeline of British Influence 

Regulating Act 1773: Pioneering Company Rule in India & Legal Transformations

• Introduction of the Governor-General of Bengal: The act established the position of “Governor-General of Bengal,” where governance in Bengal was overseen by the Governor-General and a council comprising four members. Warren Hastings assumed the inaugural role of Governor-General. 
• Expansion of Authority: The Act brought the Governors of Bombay and Madras under the authority of the Governor-General of Bengal. 
• Establishment of the Supreme Court in Bengal:. pivotal development was the establishment of a Supreme Court in Bengal (Calcutta), equipped with appellate jurisdictions for citizens seeking legal remedies. This court comprised one chief justice and three other judges. 
• Amendment and Exemption: In 1781, the Act underwent an amendment, exempting the Governor-General, the Council, and government officials from jurisdiction for actions performed in the discharge of their official duties, thereby contributing to the foundation of Company Rule in India. 

 Pitt’s India Act 1784 and the Birth of Dual Governance Under Company Rule 

• Introduction of Dual Control System: Pitt’s India Act 1784 introduced a dual control system where the British government and the East India Company shared governance. The Company became a subordinate department of the State, and its territories were termed ‘British possessions.’ However, it retained authority over trade and day-to-day administration. 
• Establishment of Oversight Bodies: Two important bodies emerged – the Board of Control, responsible for managing the Company’s civil, military, and revenue affairs, and a secret committee of three directors handling crucial political matters. 
• Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief: The council of the governor-general was streamlined to three members, including the commander-in-chief. In 1786, Lord Cornwallis gained authority as both the governor-general and commander-in-chief, granting him the ability to override council decisions if he accepted responsibility. This governance model set the stage for the Company Rule that followed. 

 Charter Act 1793: Empowering the Governor-General and Shaping Company Rule in British India 

• Empowerment of Governor-General: The Charter Act of 1793 expanded the authority granted to Lord Cornwallis, allowing all subsequent Governor-Generals and Governors of Presidencies to wield similar overriding powers over their councils. 
• Official Appointments Under Royal Scrutiny: The act mandated royal approval for the appointment of the governor-general, governors, and the commander-in-chief. 
• Restrictions on Senior Officials: Senior Company officials were prohibited from departing India without official permission, with such action considered tantamount to resignation. 
• Financial Provisions: The legislation stipulated that Board of Control members and their staff would be funded from Indian revenues until 1919. The East India Company was also required to make an annual payment of 5 lakh pounds to the British government after covering essential expenses. 

 Charter Act 1813: Transforming Trade and Initiating Company Rule in India 

• English Traders’ Request: English traders requested a share in India’s trade due to losses suffered from Napoleon Bonaparte’s Continental System, leading to the end of the East India Company’s exclusive control over trade. 
• End of Company Monopoly: The legislation emphasized the Crown’s authority over the Company’s possessions, shaping Company Rule’s trajectory. 
• Trade Monopoly Exceptions: The Company retained its trade monopoly with China and its tea trade. 
• Support for Indian Education: An annual sum of Rs.1,00,000 was allocated to promote literature, encourage educated Indians, and advance scientific knowledge among the Indian population, marking the government’s initial role in education. 

 Charter Act 1833: Company Rule and India’s Evolution 

• Company’s Trade Situation: The Charter Act of 1833 extended the Company’s 20-year lease for territory possession and revenue collection. However, the Company’s trade monopoly with China and tea ended. 
• European Immigration Freed: All restrictions on European immigration and property acquisition in India were lifted, facilitating extensive European colonization in India. 
• Introduction of Governor-General of India: The title of “Governor-General of Bengal” was changed to “Governor-General of India,” empowering the position to oversee all civil and military affairs, control revenue collection, and have full authority over expenditures. William Bentinck became the first Governor-General of India. 
• Law Commission Established: The legislation established the Law Commission to consolidate and codify Indian laws and introduced a fourth ordinary Member to the Governor-General’s Council for India, specializing in lawmaking. Lord Macaulay was the first appointed to this role. 

 Evolution under Charter Act 1853: Company Rule in Transition 

• Company’s Trade Situation: The Company retained control of its territories unless specified otherwise by Parliament. 
• Overhaul of Services: The Company’s influence over government positions was eliminated, and these positions became accessible through competitive exams. 
• Expansion of the Executive Council: The law member gained full membership in the governor-general’s executive council. 
• Indian Legislative Council: Local representation was introduced in the Indian legislature, known as the Indian Legislative Council. 
• Governor-General’s Veto Power: The governor-general had the authority to veto any legislative council bill for enactment. 

 Government of India Act 1858 and the End of Company Rule 

• Impact of the 1857 Revolt: The 1857 Revolt highlighted the East India Company’s inability to manage complex situations effectively. 
• End of Company Rule: The uprising prompted calls to strip the Company of its authority over Indian territories, leading to the end of the dual system established by Pitt’s India Act. India was to be governed in the name of the Crown through a secretary of state and a council of 15, although the council had an advisory role. 
• Introduction of the Viceroy: The title “Governor-General of India” was replaced by “Viceroy,” enhancing the position’s prestige, though not its authority. The Viceroy was appointed directly by the British government, with Lord Canning becoming the first Viceroy of India. 

Tip: Reforms During Company Rule by Governors-General 

 Lord Cornwallis (1786-93): 

•  As the first Governor-General, he organized and introduced the civil services in India. 
•  Abolished the District Faujdari Courts and established circuit courts in Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad, and Patna. 
•  Implemented the Cornwallis Code, which separated revenue and justice administration, extended jurisdiction to European subjects, held government officials accountable in civil courts for their official actions, and established the principle of the rule of law. 

 William Bentinck (1828-1833): 

•  Abolished the four Circuit Courts and transferred their functions to the Collectors. 
•  Created a Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat Adalat in Allahabad to serve the people of the Upper Provinces. 
•  English replaced Persian as the official language in courts, and litigants were given the choice to use either Persian or a vernacular language in court proceedings. 
•  Development of the Civil Procedure Code (1859), Indian Penal Code (1860), and Criminal Procedure Code (1861) resulted from the codification of laws.

76th Anniversary of Accession of Hyderabad

On September 17, 2024, India commemorated the 76th anniversary of the accession of Hyderabad to the Indian Union, a crucial event in the post-independence consolidation of the country.

Key Highlights of the Accession of Hyderabad

Background of Hyderabad:

• Geography: Hyderabad was a large, landlocked princely state in South India, covering what is now Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and parts of Maharashtra.
• Demographics: The population was predominantly Hindu (87%) but was ruled by a Muslim, Nizam Osman Ali Khan, with the support of a Muslim elite.
• Independence Push: The Nizam and the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen sought to keep Hyderabad independent, aiming to be on par with India and Pakistan.

Nizam's Declaration of Independence

• In June 1947, the Nizam declared Hyderabad's intent to remain independent after the British transfer of power.
• India rejected this declaration, citing Hyderabad's strategic importance, and a temporary Standstill Agreement was signed, which did not resolve the issue.

Hyderabad’s Moves Toward Independence

• The Nizam began financing Pakistan and preparing for military independence by expanding his forces and importing arms.
• He also hired foreign aviators to assist in arms smuggling.

Role of the Razakars

• The Razakars, a militia loyal to the Nizam, violently suppressed opposition, targeting Hindus and Muslims who supported integration with India.

Political Agitation

• Internal conflicts, including a Communist uprising in Telangana, weakened the Nizam’s control.
• The Hyderabad State Congress began agitating for integration with India, reflecting growing discontent with the Nizam's rule.

International Appeals

• The Nizam sought support from the British and the US but was unsuccessful.
• In August 1948, he appealed to the UN Security Council, fearing imminent Indian intervention.

Operation Polo (Hyderabad Police Action)

• On September 13, 1948, the Indian Army launched Operation Polo to restore order in Hyderabad, framing it as an internal matter.
• The Nizam surrendered on September 17, 1948, marking the formal integration of Hyderabad into India.

Significance of Hyderabad's Accession to India

• Unity and Integrity: The accession strengthened the Indian Union, demonstrating resilience against opposition.
• Triumph of Secularism: The integration highlighted support from Indian Muslims for the union.
• Prevented Crisis: The preemptive action prevented a potential insurgency and international involvement.
• Use of Force: It demonstrated India’s resolve to protect national interests.
• Successful Diplomacy:. combination of diplomatic efforts and military readiness facilitated Hyderabad's accession.

Role of Sardar Patel in Integration of Princely States

• Interim Government Role: As Home Minister, Patel was instrumental in laying the groundwork for the integration of princely states into India.
• Nehru’s Acknowledgment: Patel was recognized as a key leader within the cabinet just before India’s independence, highlighting his importance in the integration process.
• Collaboration with Mountbatten: Patel worked closely with Lord Mountbatten to persuade princely rulers to accede to India, emphasizing the risks associated with remaining independent.
• Creation of States Department: He was responsible for formulating strategies for the accession of princely states and managing Standstill Agreements.
• Carrot and Stick Approach: Patel balanced diplomatic efforts with pressure tactics, such as border closures and trade restrictions, to encourage accession.

Impact on India's Territory

• Although India lost some territory during the Partition, it gained significant land and population through the integration of princely states, particularly Hyderabad.

Role of Other Leaders

• Lord Mountbatten: As the last British Governor-General of India, Mountbatten played a crucial role in persuading monarchs to join the Indian Union, leveraging his credibility and position.
• Jawaharlal Nehru: The first Prime Minister of India, Nehru advocated for a firm stance against princely sovereignty, arguing for the integration of all princely states into the Union.
• C. Rajagopalachari:. prominent political leader, Rajagopalachari emphasized that British control over princely states naturally transferred to India, reinforcing the legitimacy of the accession process.
• Congress as an Organization: The Indian National Congress maintained that princely states could not opt for independence after the end of British paramountcy, supporting the integration of all states into the Union.

Conclusion

• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel's leadership was crucial in the integration of 562 princely states into India, using a mix of diplomacy and decisive action.
• Operation Polo was instrumental in securing Hyderabad’s accession, significantly expanding India's territory and reinforcing Patel's legacy as the "Iron Man of India."