History, Art and Culture - 4 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Kashmir’s Magic Carpet

Why in news?

Recently, the renowned Hazratbal Dargah in Srinagar has drawn significant attention from locals due to the unique event of cleaning and trimming the largest carpet ever produced in Kashmir.

What is Kashmir's Magic Carpet?

• Kashmir's magic carpet is a stunning creation crafted in the Kashan Style, measuring 72 feet in length and 40 feet in width, and weighing an impressive 1,685 kg, comprising over three crore knots.
• This exquisite carpet took eight years to weave, with artisans returning to their traditional craft despite facing numerous challenges, including the 2014 floods, the abrogation of Article 370 in Jammu and Kashmir in 2019, and the disruptions caused by the Covid-19 pandemic.
• To unroll this massive carpet, a minimum of 30 people is required.
• A specialized team of 30 to 35 professional washers carefully maintains it on a daily basis.
• There are plans for this carpet to adorn a palace in the Middle East.
• Kashmiri artisans are competing for the first time against long-standing Iranian competitors, who have created a carpet the size of a soccer field at 60,468 square feet.

Kashan Style:

• The carpet features the Kashan style, which is a historic design derived from the Iranian city of Kashan.
• This style of ceramic art, originating from Kashan in Persia (modern-day Iran), has been admired by art enthusiasts for centuries.
• Kashan ware is known for its exquisite craftsmanship and intricate patterns, representing a perfect blend of tradition, innovation, and artistic skill.

Historical Context:

• Legacy of Zain-ul-Abidin: The tradition of carpet weaving in Kashmir dates back to the 15th century when Badshah Zain-ul-Abidin invited artisans from Persia and Central Asia to settle in the region.
• From Shawls to Carpets: Initially, the focus was on creating luxurious pashmina shawls. However, as demand decreased due to the advent of jacquard looms in Europe, artisans adapted their skills to carpet weaving.
• British Recognition: Kashmiri carpets gained international fame after their display at the Great London Exhibition of 1851.
• Prizes and Distinction: These carpets continued to earn accolades at exhibitions in Chicago, Paris, and London during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Weaving Secrets: The intricate designs are guided by traditional blueprints known as talim, which have been passed down through generations, ensuring the preservation of ancient techniques.

Ikshvaku Period Coins Found in Telangana

Why in News?

Recently, Telangana's Department of Heritage unearthed a significant collection of 3,730 lead coins within an earthen pot at Phanigiri, a prominent Buddhist heritage site located approximately 110 km from Hyderabad.

What are the Findings of the Excavation?

• A globular pot, measuring 16.7 cm in diameter and 15 cm in height, was discovered at a depth of 40 cm in the Southernmost monastic cell.
• The pot's opening was sealed with a small pot outside and a broken bowl base inside, containing 3,730 coins with an average weight of 2.3 grams each.
• Archaeologists determined that all coins, which are uniform in design and made of lead, display an elephant symbol on one side and the Ujjain symbol on the other. They date back to the Ikshvaku period (3rd-4th century CE) as per stratigraphic and typological analysis.

Other Artefacts Found:

• Numerous other significant cultural artifacts and structural remnants were found, including stone and glass beads, fragments of shell bangles, stucco motifs, broken limestone sculptures, toy cartwheels, iron nails, and various pottery items.

Earlier Excavation:

• Phanigiri has been the site of seven previous excavation campaigns.
• Past excavations revealed a Mahastupa, apsidal Chaitya Grihas, Votive stupas, pillared congregation halls, Viharas, multi-level platforms with staircases, an octagonal stupa chaitya, a 24-pillared mandapa, and a circular chaitya.
• Additional cultural materials uncovered included terracotta and semi-precious beads, iron artifacts, shell bangle pieces, stucco figures, Brahmi label inscriptions, and a relic casket.

Significance of Phanigiri Village:

• Phanigiri village is situated on the left bank of the Bikkeru Rivulet, which is a tributary of the Musi river in Hyderabad.
• This village served as an important Buddhist monastery strategically placed on a hilltop along the ancient trade route (Dakshinapatha) that connected northern and southern regions of India.
• The name "Phanigiri" is derived from the shape of a hillock resembling a snake hood, where "Phani" means snake and "Giri" means hillock in Sanskrit.
• The village has been inhabited from prehistoric times through the early medieval period and into the Asaf Jahi era (1724-1948), showcasing a vibrant history from 1000 BCE to the late 18th century CE.
• This evolved Buddhist monastery is noted to surpass other monasteries at Amaravathi and Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda) in Andhra Pradesh.
• Phanigiri was initially identified and safeguarded during the Nizam's period, with excavations conducted from 1941 to 1944 by Sri Khaja Mahamad Ahmad.

Other Buddhist Sites in the Region:

• Several Buddhist sites are located near Phanigiri, including Vardhamanukota, Gajula Banda, Tirumalagiri, Nagaram, Singaram, Aravapalli, Ayyavaripalli, Arlagaddagudem, and Yeleswaram.

What are the Key Facts About the Ikshvaku Period?

• The Ikshvaku dynasty arose in the Krishna-Guntur region following the decline of Satavahana power in the eastern parts of the Indian peninsula.
• Active from around 300 CE to 400 CE, the dynasty is named after the legendary King Ikshvaku.
• Information about the Ikshvakus primarily comes from inscriptions, coinage, and archaeological evidence.
• It is believed that the Ikshvaku dynasty originated in the Vijayapuri region (modern Bellary district, Karnataka) during the 3rd century.
• They were eventually succeeded by the Pallavas.
• Under King Kanha, the Ikshvakus expanded their territory significantly, establishing a strong regional presence across parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra.
• The dynasty was known for its support of Buddhism, leading to the construction of notable structures, such as those found at Kanaganahalli and Sankaram.
• Ikshvaku coins featuring Buddhist symbols and regional deities were widely circulated during this period, reflecting their cultural and economic contributions.

Mahavir Jayanti

Why in news?

Recently, the Vice-President of India greeted the people on the occasion of ‘Mahavir Jayanti’ (April 21st, 2024).

About Mahavir Jayanti:

• Mahavir Jayanti, also known as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, is one of the most significant festivals in Jainism, celebrating the birth anniversary of Lord Mahavir, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism.
• Celebrated by Jains worldwide, Mahavir Jayanti is marked by religious processions, prayers, chants, and sermons.
• The day is a time for celebration, reflection, and a renewed commitment to the teachings of Lord Mahavir.
• On this day, Jains pledge to practice compassion towards all living beings, promoting values of tolerance, compassion, and non-violence.
• This day serves as a reminder for individuals to reflect on their actions and strive to live a morally righteous life.
• Donations are made to contribute towards saving animals from slaughter.

About Lord Mahavir:

Historical Background:

• Birth: Lord Mahavir, born as Vardhamana, was the son of King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala in the early 6th century BCE in Kundagrama, modern-day Bihar, India.
• He was born on the Trayodashi (13th) of Shukla Paksha in the Hindu month of Chaitra, falling in late March or early April according to the Gregorian calendar.
• There are differing beliefs about his birth year: Swetambar Jains claim 599 BC, while Digambar Jains suggest 615 BC.
• Spiritual Awakening: At age 30, Mahavir renounced his royal life for spiritual awakening, attaining Kevala Jnana after 12 years of intense meditation.
• He preached non-violence and traveled across India for 30 years, delivering his first sermon at Pava.
• Symbol: Mahavir’s symbol is a lion, representing strength and courage.
• He attained enlightenment at age 72 in 468 B.C. at Pavapuri, Bihar.
• Mahavir is celebrated for his teachings on non-violence, compassion, and living a simple, austere life.
• His core teachings include Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (chastity), and Aparigraha (non-attachment).
• His prominent disciple, Indrabhuti Gautama, documented his teachings for future generations.

About Jainism:

• Origin: Jainism gained prominence in the 6th century B.C. with Mahavir as its key figure. The term 'Jain' is derived from 'jina' or 'jaina', meaning ‘Conqueror’.
• Jainism predates Buddhism in terms of its doctrines.
• Cause of Origin: The rigidity of Hinduism and the emergence of new agricultural practices using iron tools led to the rise of Jainism.
• Tirthankaras: There are 24 Tirthankaras in Jainism, who attained knowledge (Moksha) and shared their wisdom.
• Belief: Jains view their religion as eternal (sanatan) and believe in mutual support among souls, encapsulated in the motto 'Parasparopagraho Jīvānām'.
• The Concept of God: Jainism acknowledges the existence of God but does not view God as the creator of the universe, placing Jina (Lord Mahavir) above God.
• Tenets: Jainism focuses on liberation, achievable through the Three Jewels (Triratna): Right Faith (Samyak Darshan), Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana), and Right Action (Samyak Charitra).

Doctrines:

• Ahimsa: Non-injury to living beings
• Satya: Truthfulness
• Asteya: Non-stealing
• Aparigraha: Non-possessiveness
• Brahmacharya: Chastity
• Jainism spread through the Sangha, including both men and women, and received support from various royal patrons.

Major Sects of Jainism:

• Major Sects: Jainism consists of two main sects: Digambara and Shwetambara.
• Digambaras: Monks of this sect practice complete renunciation of clothes; male monks remain naked while female monks wear unstitched white sarees. They adhere to all five vows.
• Digambaras believe that women cannot achieve liberation. Bhadrabahu is a notable exponent of this sect.
• Shwetambaras: Monks wear white clothing and follow four vows (excluding brahmacharya). They believe women can attain liberation. Sthulabhadra is a significant figure for this sect.

Important Terms Related to Jainism:

• Asrav: Inflow of karmas into the soul occurring continuously.
• Samvara: The stoppage of material karma influx into soul consciousness.
• Nirjara: The shedding of accumulated karmas, necessary for achieving moksha.
• Sallekhana: A voluntary fasting practice to attain death peacefully, also known as Santhara.
• Kaivalya: Omniscience or supreme wisdom in Jainism.
• Anekantavada: The philosophy recognizing the complexity of truth with multiple perspectives.
• Syadvada: The method of evaluating different probabilities, emphasizing conditional judgments.

Difference between Anekantavada and Syadvada:

• Anekantavada concerns the knowledge of differing attributes while Syadvada describes particular attributes based on conditions.

Historical Jain Councils:

• First Jain Council: Held at Patliputra in the 3rd century B.C., presided by Sthulbhadra.
• Second Jain Council: Conducted in Vallabhi in 512 A.D., led by Devardhi Kshmasramana.

Difference of Jainism from Buddhism:

• God Existence: Jainism acknowledges God while Buddhism does not.
• Varna System: Jainism does not reject the varna system, unlike Buddhism.
• Belief System: Jainism supports the idea of soul transmigration; Buddhism does not.
• Path Followed: Buddha promotes the middle path, whereas Jainism advocates a path of extreme austerity.

Contribution of Jainism:

• Language & Literature: Jainism contributed to the development of languages like Prakrit and Kannada.
• Vardhaman Mahavir preached in Ardha-Magadhi, the common man's language. Important texts like Kalpasutra were written by Bhadrabahu.
• Jain literature is primarily in the Prakrit language and known as Jain Agamas.

Classification of Jain Literature:

• Agam Literature: The sacred texts of Jainism written in Ardha-magadhi, divided into Angas, Mulasutra, Upangas, Prakirnaka Sutra, Chedasutra, and Ulikasutras.
• Non-Agam Literature: Includes commentaries and independent works in multiple languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, and more.

Philosophy:

• Jainism introduced the philosophy of syadvada, emphasizing the complexity of truth.

Art & Architecture:

• Notable contributions of Jainism include the statue of Gomateshwara, the temples of Khajuraho, and architectural sites like the caves of Ellora.
• Manasthambha, an ornamental pillar structure in temples, carries the image of Tirthankara.
• Basadis are monastic establishments or temples in Karnataka.

Significant Architectural Figures of Jainism:

• Layana/Gumphas (Caves): Important caves include Ellora Caves, Mangi Tungi Cave, and Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves.
• Statues: Notable statues include Gomateshwara/Bahubali at Shravanabelagola and the statue of Ahimsa at Mangi-Tungi hills.
• Jinalaya (Temple): Significant Jain temples include the Dilwara Temple, Girnar, and Muktagiri Temple.

Economy:

• Jainism significantly contributed to the growth of the trading community.

Contemporary Relevance of Jainism:

• Ahimsa (non-violence): It is crucial in today's world to foster long-lasting peace and counteract violence and terrorism.
• The principle of treating all living beings equally is essential for sustainability and environmental conservation.
• Aparigraha (non-possession): This concept addresses issues of consumerism, climate change, and resource depletion.
• By reducing unnecessary consumption, we can combat global warming and social unrest.
• Religious tolerance is vital in diverse societies, helping to mitigate conflicts and promote harmony.
• The teachings of Triratna provide a pathway to liberation and freedom from subjugation.

Conclusion

• Jainism remains an ethical religion with relevance today, addressing various aspects of human life and promoting social development, individual happiness, and political harmony.

NCERT Recent Revisions in School Textbooks

Why in News

NCERT's recent updates to textbooks incorporate findings from DNA analysis conducted at Rakhigarhi, emphasizing the continuity of ancient Indian civilization. Significant revisions also include the acknowledgment of the victories of the Ahom rulers, the use of honorific titles for Shivaji, and a shift in language from terms like "rebel" to "revolt" in historical discussions.

Key Facts Related to Rakhigarhi

• Location: Rakhigarhi is an archaeological site located in the Hisar district of Haryana, positioned in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain.
• Significance: It ranks as one of the largest sites of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) and is found along the banks of the now-dry Sarasvati River.
• Archaeological Layers: Excavations have revealed three distinct layers corresponding to the Early, Mature, and Late phases of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Major Findings:

• Evidence of a sophisticated drainage system and organized lanes.
• Artifacts include jewelry units, copper and gold ornaments, terracotta toys, earthen pots, seals, and a burnt-brick wall, suggesting the presence of a walled settlement.
• Discovery of semi-precious stones such as agate and carnelian.
• Excavation of two female skeletons accompanied by a variety of pottery and adorned jewelry.
• A notable find is a cylindrical seal featuring five Harappan characters on one side and an alligator symbol on the other.

DNA Analysis of Rakhigarhi:

• The analysis indicates a genetic link between the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization and present-day populations, challenging previous notions of significant migrations.
• This supports the argument for an indigenous origin of the IVC, underscoring its importance as one of the early major civilizations in history.

Ahom Dynasty:

• The Ahom dynasty, which ruled from 1228 to 1826 CE over present-day Assam, was renowned for its resistance against powerful empires.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680 CE): He played a pivotal role in establishing the Maratha Empire, challenging Mughal supremacy in western India.
• Battle of Saraighat: A crucial naval confrontation in 1671 between the Ahom Kingdom and the Mughal Empire where the Ahoms achieved a significant victory, effectively curbing Mughal expansion into Assam.
• Shivaji utilized innovative guerrilla warfare tactics, emphasizing mobility and surprise to counter larger Mughal forces.
• He instituted a tax system comprising two taxes known as Chauth and Sardeshmukhi and organized his kingdom into four provinces, each governed by a Mamlatdar.
• Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari System, replacing it with the Ryotwari System to enhance local governance.

Delisting of Monuments

Why in the News?

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) plans to delist 18 centrally protected monuments from a total of 24 identified as "untraceable." This action is based on the assessment that these monuments do not hold national significance.

More about News:

• These 18 monuments were previously categorized as untraceable due to various factors, including rapid urbanization and challenges in locating them in remote or densely forested areas.

Some notable monuments slated for delisting include:

• The medieval highway milestone known as Kos Minar No.13 located in Mujessar village, Haryana.
• The tomb of Gunner Burkill in Jhansi district.
• The Telia Nala Buddhist ruins in Varanasi.
• The Kos-minars, erected during the reign of Mughal Emperor Jahangir, are among the earliest known road milestones in Indian history, with the Kos-minar built by Mughal Emperor Akbar in A.D. 1575 to aid in administration and enhance travel comfort.
• This decision follows a report submitted to Parliament by the Ministry of Culture titled "Issues relating to Untraceable Monuments and Protection of Monuments in India."

About Delisting:

• Delisting a monument means it will no longer receive conservation, protection, or maintenance support from the ASI.
• Once delisted, normal construction and urbanization activities can proceed in the vicinity of the monument.
• This process is governed by Section 35 of The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act, 1958, which allows the Central Government to determine whether a monument has lost its national importance.
• The term "Missing Monuments" is not defined in the AMASR Act; it was introduced in a report by the CAG Audit team.

Legal Framework for Monument Protection:

• Article 49 of the Constitution mandates the state to safeguard monuments and objects of national significance.
• This article encompasses the preservation of ancient and historical monuments, archaeological sites, and related objects, regulating archaeological excavations and the protection of sculptures and carvings.
• Section 4 of the AMASR Act empowers the Central Government to declare ancient monuments as being of National Importance.
• The National Monuments Authority (NMA), established under The AMASR (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2010, is tasked with ensuring the protection and preservation of monuments and sites.
• Its responsibilities include managing prohibited and regulated areas around centrally protected monuments and granting permissions for related activities.

Challenges in Protecting the Monuments:

• Uniform Restrictions: The AMASR Act mandates a uniform 100-meter prohibited zone and a 200-meter regulated zone around monuments, which may not adequately address the unique characteristics of each site.
• Coverage Gaps: Smaller monuments that are not listed at the national or state level lack legal protection, making them susceptible to development and neglect.
• ASI's Limited Powers: Delays in issuing notifications hinder effective protection against encroachment.
• Lack of Manpower: The ASI faces significant staffing and budget limitations, affecting security measures and leaving monuments exposed to theft and vandalism. According to a 2022 report from the Ministry of Culture, only 248 out of 3,693 protected monuments have guards.

Recommendations:

• Case-Specific Determination: It is recommended to create a framework for determining prohibited and regulated areas around monuments on a case-by-case basis to ensure appropriate protection measures.
• Flexible Appointment Criteria: A review of the appointment criteria for the National Monuments Authority (NMA) should be conducted to include experienced professionals from the ASI or Ministry of Culture.
• Legal Coverage: An amendment to the Constitution is suggested to include "ancient and historical monuments other than those declared to be of national importance" in the Concurrent List, which would empower the central government to enforce conservation provisions for monuments not covered by the Union or State Lists.
• Empower ASI: Recommendations include setting a time limit for the ASI to issue final notifications and integrating provisions for addressing encroachments under the Indian Forest Act, 1927.

Virupaksha Temple

Why in news?

The Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka, has gained attention due to worries regarding its conservation efforts after a pavilion, known as the saalu mantapa, collapsed during heavy rains in 2024. This temple is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized since 1986, which includes the Group of Monuments at Hampi.

Overview:

• The Virupaksha Temple is located in the Vijayanagara district of Karnataka.

Historical significance:

• Dedication: The temple is dedicated to Lord Virupaksha, a manifestation of Lord Shiva.
• Location: It has been in continuous operation since the 7th century AD, making it one of India's oldest temples still in use.
• Inception: Initially a simple shrine, it was expanded significantly during the reign of the Vijayanagara kings, with further enhancements made during the Chalukyan and Hoysala periods.

Architectural features:

• Style: The temple showcases South Indian architectural style, highlighting intricate craftsmanship and advanced engineering techniques.
• Main structure: The temple complex encompasses a sanctum sanctorum, several pillared halls (the most notable being the one with 100 pillars), antechambers, and grand gopurams, which are gateway towers.
• Gopurams: There are three significant gopurams, with the eastern one being the largest, standing at nine storeys and 50 meters tall. The other two are smaller and located on the inner east and northern sides of the complex.
• Sculptural details: The gopurams are embellished with exquisite sculptures of various Hindu deities.
• Innovative construction: The design integrates principles of physics, including Rectilinear Light Theory and the pinhole camera effect. Mathematical concepts such as fractals, geometry, complex mathematics, and the Fibonacci sequence were also applied in the construction.
• Remarkable feature: The temple features an inverted pinhole image of its tower on the inner wall, exemplifying ancient engineering prowess.

Cultural importance:

• The Virupaksha Temple continues to be a central hub for religious and cultural activities in Hampi, attracting both pilgrims and tourists. Its long-standing tradition of worship emphasizes its lasting importance in India’s spiritual heritage.