History, Art and Culture - 5 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Wooden Artifacts of Stone Age

Why in News?

Recent research has prompted a reevaluation of the Stone Age, suggesting it could be more accurately termed the 'Wood Age.' This new perspective is based on the discovery and analysis of wooden artifacts that date back 300,000 to 400,000 years, found in Schöningen, Germany. Additionally, findings at Ghugwa, Madhya Pradesh indicate that ancient hunter-gatherers crafted tools from fossil wood, estimated to be over 10,000 years old. These tools include mid-sized flakes and microliths discovered in the same region.

How Wooden Tools Challenge Ideas of the Stone Age?

Sophisticated Wooden Tools:

• The artifacts demonstrate a wide array of woodworking techniques that go beyond simply sharpened sticks.

Insights into Early Human Behaviour and Capabilities:

• The discovery of ancient hunting tools challenges the traditional view of prehistoric humans as mere scavengers. It reveals their advanced skills in strategic hunting, planning, and technological adaptability through the repair and reuse of tools.

Preservation Bias:

• Research indicates a bias in archaeology that favors the preservation of stone artifacts over organic materials. This bias may skew our understanding of the significance of wood in prehistoric cultures, despite well-preserved wooden artifacts demonstrating its vital role.

What is the Stone Age?

• The Stone Age marks the period when hominids first began using stone tools, approximately 3.4 million years ago in present-day Ethiopia.
• This era lasted until about 6,000 to 4,000 years ago, encompassing 99% of human history.

Stone Age in India:

• India's diverse geography, including its land, water, flora, and fauna, supported human habitation across most areas, excluding the Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic plains.
• The Stone Age in India is categorized into three primary periods: the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic.

Further division of the Indian Paleolithic includes three developmental stages:

• Lower Paleolithic (600,000 to 150,000 years ago): This phase involved the use of large pebbles and flakes to create choppers, hand axes, cleavers, and knives. It consists of two cultural traditions: the Soanian pebble-tool tradition and the Peninsular Indian handaxe-cleaver tradition.
• Middle Paleolithic (165,000 to 31,000 years ago): Characterized by a variety of flakes struck from cores, used to prepare scrapers, points, borers, and other tools.
• Upper Paleolithic (40,000 to 12,000 years ago): Notable for the innovation of various tool types, including blunted blades, penknife blades, serrated edges, and arrow points made from long parallel-sided blades through a punch technique.
• Mesolithic Culture: This period saw the emergence of semi-permanent and temporary settlements, the use of caves and open areas for habitation, burial rituals, artistic expressions, cultural continuity, and the use of microlithic tools for hunting smaller game.
• Neolithic Period: This era signified the advent of agriculture and animal domestication, with early evidence of Neolithic culture found in regions like the Fertile Crescent in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges Valley in India, and parts of China.

Weaving in India

Why in the News?

The Union Government is currently planning collaborations with foreign technical institutes to train Indian artisans and weavers.

The history of Indian textiles and weavers in India dates back to ancient times. The origins of textiles in India can be traced back to 3000 BC, during the Indus Valley Civilization.

Ancient India

Indus Valley Civilization (3300 – 1300 BCE):

• Evidence of cotton cultivation and textile production has been discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
• Terracotta figurines from the IVC are often depicted wearing woven garments.
• Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro (circa 2500 to 1500 BCE) revealed dye and woven cotton fragments wrapped around a silver pot.

Vedic Period (1500 – 500 BCE):

• The Rigveda contains references to weaving, emphasizing its religious and cultural importance.
• A male weaver is termed 'vasovaya' while a female weaver is called 'vayitri'.

Post-Vedic Period:

• Epic texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana reference silk and woolen clothing.
• Buddhist literature identifies various textile types, including linen (khoman), cotton (kappasikam), and silk (kosseyam).
• Terms found in these texts include 'tantuvaya' (weavers), 'tantavitatatthanam' (place of weaving), and 'tantaka' (loom).
• The Arthashastra mentions a superintendent of yarns (sutradhyaksa) responsible for overseeing yarn production.

Medieval India

• The Achaemenid Empire introduced Persian designs and weaving methods to India.

Mughal Empire (1526-1857):

• Mughal emperors supported the arts and established Karkhanas, or workshops, for textile production.
• This era saw the creation of luxurious textiles like brocades, muslin, and Malmal Khas (a muslin favored by Mughals).
• In Western India, silk was often blended with cotton, exemplified by the 'alacha' fabric produced in Cambay, Gujarat.
• Mirza Dughlat Baig's medieval text 'Tarikh-i-Rashidi' mentions sericulture practices in Kashmir.
• The textile industry flourished during this period, becoming the largest industry under Mughal rule and catering to a vast European market.

Modern India & European Influence:

• The Industrial Revolution in England posed challenges for Indian textiles, as they struggled to compete with machine-made garments.
• The influx of English clothing negatively impacted Indian textile merchants and weavers, as British textiles were more affordable.
• This led to a decline in the Indian textile market, which became primarily a supplier of raw cotton to England, resulting in a significant wealth drain from India.

Steps taken to Improve Condition of Weavers/Handloom sector

National Handloom Development Programme (NHDP):

• This initiative by the Ministry of Textile is being executed from the financial year 2021-22 to 2025-26.
• It adopts a need-based approach for the integrated and holistic development of handlooms and the welfare of handloom weavers.
• Main components of the scheme include:
  (a) Cluster Development Programme
  (b) Handloom Marketing Assistance
  (c) Weavers’ Welfare
  (d) Mega Handloom Cluster

Comprehensive Handloom Cluster Development Scheme (CHCDS): This scheme focuses on developing Mega Handloom Clusters in identifiable geographical areas, covering at least 15,000 handlooms.

Handloom Weavers’ Comprehensive Welfare Scheme (HWCWS): This program offers life, accidental, and disability insurance coverage under various components, including:

• Pradhan Mantri Jivan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY)
• Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY)
• Converged Mahatma Gandhi Bunkar Bima Yojana (MGBY)

Raw Material Supply Scheme (RMSS):

• This initiative aims to ensure that all types of yarn are accessible to handloom weavers across the country.

The Handloom Mark Scheme:

• This scheme provides consumers with assurance regarding the authenticity of handloom products.

Apartheid System

Why in the News?

South Africa recently celebrated 30 years since the end of the Apartheid system, a framework characterized by racial discrimination.

About:

• Apartheid was a legalized system of racial discrimination established in South Africa.
• It was enforced by White Europeans against Non-whites, including Black Africans, Coloured people, and Indians, treating them as inferior.
• Though institutionalized in 1948, earlier governments had enacted numerous pass laws that laid the groundwork for apartheid.
• Pass laws restricted the movement of Black individuals into areas designated for White and Coloured populations.

Statutory Basis of Apartheid System:

• The Population Registration Act of 1950 served as the foundational law for apartheid, classifying all South Africans by race, including Bantu (Black Africans), Coloured (mixed race), White, and Asian (including Indians and Pakistanis).
• The Group Areas Act of 1950 allocated specific areas for each race, which later facilitated forced removals.
• Other significant laws included the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) and the Bantu Education Act (1953), which enforced educational segregation.

Indians in South Africa were categorized into three groups:

• Indentured Indian labourers, who migrated from regions such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and South India after 1890 to work on sugar plantations.
• Merchants, primarily Meman Muslims, who followed the labourers.
• Ex-indentured labourers, who settled in South Africa with their families after fulfilling their contracts.

Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM)

• The AAM was the first successful transnational social movement of the 20th century.
• Objectives included internal campaigns to undermine the apartheid regime and external initiatives for political, economic, and cultural sanctions against it.

The AAM comprised three phases:

• First Phase: Involved nonviolent direct-action tactics led by organizations like the African National Congress (ANC) and the South African Communist Party (SACP).
• Second Phase (Post-1960s): Marked by the internationalization of the struggle, gaining support from entities like the African Union and the United Nations.
• UN: Adopted the International Convention on Suppression and Punishment of Crime of Apartheid.
• Third Phase: Massive resistance (Post-1980s) aimed at making the country ungovernable through strikes, boycotts, demonstrations, and sabotage.

Impact of Anti-Apartheid Movement:

• By 1990, the government lifted bans on political parties and repealed several apartheid-era laws, including the 1913 and 1936 Land Acts, Population Registration Act, and Separate Amenities Act.
• Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1991, and four years later, on May 10, 1994, he became South Africa's first Black president.

Contribution of India in South African Anti-Apartheid Struggle:

• Mahatma Gandhi played a pivotal role in the AAM by initiating the first anti-colonial and anti-racial discrimination movement in South Africa.
• He founded the Natal Indian Congress (1894) and the newspaper Indian Opinion (1903).
• In 1906, Gandhi led thousands of Satyagrahis in a boycott against legislation requiring Indians to carry registration certificates with fingerprints.
• Upon leaving South Africa in 1915, Gandhi left behind his legacy, including the Phoenix Settlement (an ashram-like community near Durban).

Natal Indian Congress (NIC)

• The NIC was the leading political organization for Indians in South Africa during the 20th century.
• In 1894, it allied with the ANC, breaking the pattern of racially exclusive mobilizations.
• In 1945, Dr. G. M. Naicker became the leader of NIC and spearheaded the 1946 Indian Passive Resistance Campaign in Durban.
• Many NIC leaders faced imprisonment in the 1950s and 1960s due to their militant stance.
• In the 1980s, NIC launched a significant campaign against the South African Indian Council.

Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo:

• A prominent figure from the Indian community in the struggle against apartheid, he was a founder and leader of the Non-European United Front and the revived Communist Party.
• After going into exile in 1960, he played a crucial role in promoting underground and armed resistance in South Africa and supporting the global anti-apartheid movement.

Role of Indian Government:

• India was the first nation to cut trade ties with the apartheid government in 1946 and later imposed a complete embargo.
• It was the first country to bring the issue of South African apartheid to the United Nations in 1946, helping to internationalize the struggle against racism.
• The ANC maintained a representative office in New Delhi from the 1960s, and India actively supported the AFRICA Fund to sustain the AAM.

Role of UN in South African Anti-Apartheid Struggle:

• The UN was approached after the Asiatic Landownership Act was passed in 1946, which limited Indian land ownership and segregated Indians.

Key actions by the UN included:

• Condemnation and sanctions: The UN imposed diplomatic and economic sanctions against South Africa.
• In 1971, apartheid was declared a "crime against humanity."
• In 1977, the UN Security Council mandated an arms embargo and the General Assembly imposed a voluntary oil embargo.
• Legitimizing resistance: The UN established the Special Committee against Apartheid in 1963 and the Centre against Apartheid in 1976.
• In 1973, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution against apartheid.
• South Africa was suspended from the UN in 1974 and was only readmitted in 1994 following its democratic transition.

Nelson Mandela (1918 - 2013)

• Early Life: Born in 1918 in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, he was the son of a Thembu Chief.
• Political Career & Struggle: Mandela became a symbol of the AAM and was South Africa's first democratically elected president in 1994.
• He joined the ANC in 1944 and helped form the ANC Youth League, leading nonviolent protests against apartheid laws.
• In 1964, he was sentenced to life imprisonment during the Rivonia Trial and was released in 1990 after 27 years.

Philosophy of Mandela:

• Known as the "Gandhi of South Africa," Mandela was a strong proponent of Gandhi's teachings, focusing on peace, compassion, and social justice.
• Both Mandela and Gandhi are celebrated for their commitment to truth and fairness.

Awards & Legacy:

• Mandela received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.
• After his release, India honored him with the Bharat Ratna and later the International Gandhi Peace Prize in 2001 for his efforts in peacebuilding.
• The UN commemorates Nelson Mandela International Day on July 18 every year.

Evolution of Music System

Why in News?

A recent study revealed chimps' ability to dance in tune with rhythmic music suggesting an evolutionary link in our sense of rhythm. Archaeological evidence, including a 40,000-year-old flute made from animal bone, provides insights into the origins of human musical expression.

Findings of the Recent Study

Origin of Music in Humans

• Humans likely began singing following the evolution of speech during the Old Stone Age, about 2.5 million years ago.
• The ability to create musical instruments is believed to have emerged around 40,000 years ago, as evidenced by a flute made from animal bone with seven holes.

Musical Notations

• In India, the musical notes ('sa, re, ga, ma, pa, da, ni') are thought to have originated during the Vedic period (1500-600 BCE), which laid the foundation for Indian classical music.
• Musical notation systems developed independently in Europe and the Middle East around the 9th century BCE, employing spaced notations ('do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti').

Evolution of the Indian Music System

How Indian Music Evolved in the Ancient Period?

• The roots of Indian music trace back to the Sama Veda, where hymns were harmonized with music.
• Narada Muni is credited with introducing the art of music, sharing knowledge of Naada Brahma, the cosmic sound that fills the universe.
• Initially focused on single notes, Vedic music gradually incorporated two and then three notes, culminating in the establishment of seven basic notes (sapta swaras), fundamental to Indian classical music.
• Vedic hymns played a crucial role in religious rituals like yagas and yagnas, accompanied by string and percussion instruments.
• Early Tamil scholars, such as Ilango Adigal and Mahendra Verma, significantly contributed to musical ideas in ancient Tamil culture, reflected in texts like Silappadi Kaaram and Kudumiyamalai inscriptions.
• Ancient Tamil texts, such as Karunamrita Sagara, detailed ragas and concepts like sthayi (octave), srutis, and swara sthanas.

How Indian Music Evolved in the Medieval Period?

• Up until the 13th century, India maintained a cohesive musical system based on key principles like saptaswaras (seven notes), octaves, and sruti (microtones).
• Haripala introduced the terms Hindustani and Carnatic music, distinguishing between northern and southern musical traditions.
• The influence of Muslim rulers in North India led to the incorporation of Arabian and Persian musical elements, expanding the range of Indian music.
• While North India engaged in cultural exchanges, South India enjoyed relative isolation, promoting uninterrupted musical development supported by temples and Hindu rulers.
• Distinct systems of Hindustani and Carnatic music emerged, rooted in Vedic principles but showcasing unique regional characteristics.
• The rise of the Bhakti movement from the 7th century onwards saw many saint singers and poets, such as Purandara Dasa, who systematized talas (rhythmic cycles) and enriched devotional music.
• This period clarified classifications of ragas, forming a foundation for the melodic structure of Indian classical music.
• Significant growth in various musical forms, including Ragas and Talas, occurred during this era.
• New musical forms such as Khayal, Thumri, and Tarana gained prominence, enriching the repertoire of Hindustani classical music.
• Distinct gharanas (musical traditions) like Agra, Gwalior, Jaipur, Kirana, and Lucknow flourished, each contributing unique stylistic elements to Hindustani music.

How Indian Music Evolved in the Modern Period?

• Prominent musicians such as Ustad Alladia Khan, Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, Pt. Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, and Ustad Bade Gulam Alikhan became icons of 20th-century Hindustani music, enhancing the tradition with their skills and innovations.
• The introduction of notation systems ensured the preservation and accessibility of musical compositions through generations, safeguarding India's musical heritage.
• Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande played a crucial role in systematizing Hindustani Ragas with the 'Thaat' system, creating a structured framework for musical education and performance.
• Numerous scholarly musical forms such as Kritis, Swarajatis, Varna, Pada, Tillana, Jawali, and Ragamalikas were created, evolving in both musical and lyrical complexity while drawing inspiration from ancient prabandhas.

Kozhikode, UNESCO’s City of Literature

Why in news?

Kozhikode has recently been recognized as the ‘City of Literature’ under the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN).

What is the UNESCO Creative Cities Network?

• The UNESCO Creative Cities Network was established in 2004.
• This network encompasses seven creative fields: Crafts and Folk Art, Design, Film, Gastronomy, Literature, Media Arts, and Music.
• Each year, an annual conference is held where mayors and stakeholders from network cities gather to strengthen connections among creative cities globally.
• The upcoming conference is scheduled for July 2024 in Braga, Portugal.

Objective:

• The network consists of 350 cities that aim to integrate creativity and cultural industries into their development plans at the local level.
• It promotes cooperation at the international level to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 11, focusing on urban development.
• Through innovative thinking and actions, the network seeks to benefit urban communities.

Significance:

• Members of the network commit to sharing best practices and forming partnerships involving public, private, and civil society sectors.
• The goal is to enhance the creation, production, and distribution of cultural activities.

Which are Indian Cities in UCCN?

• Kozhikode is home to many prominent figures in Kerala's literary and cultural scene, including leading media houses and over 500 libraries.
• It has produced numerous filmmakers and theatre professionals over the years.
• The first Malayalam novel, "Kundalatha," was authored by Appu Nedungadi in Kozhikode in 1887, marking a significant contribution to Malayalam literature.
• Renowned writers such as S. K. Pottekkatt, Thikkodiyan, and P. Valsala Sanjayan, along with various poets and scholars, have enriched the diversity and vibrancy of Malayalam literature and culture.

Other Indian cities recognized in the UCCN include:

• Jaipur: Crafts and Folk Arts (2015)
• Varanasi: Creative City of Music (2015)
• Chennai: Creative City of Music (2017)
• Mumbai: Film (2019)
• Hyderabad: Gastronomy (2019)
• Srinagar: Crafts and Folk Art (2021)

Revival of Ancient Nalanda Mahavihara

Why in news?

The Prime Minister of India inaugurated the new campus of Nalanda University in Rajgir, Bihar. This campus is located close to the ruins of the ancient Nalanda University, which was established through the Nalanda University Act 2010, following a decision made during the 2nd East Asia Summit in the Philippines in 2007.

The Ancient Nalanda Mahavihara:

• Nalanda was a prominent Buddhist mahavihara, or great monastery, in ancient and medieval Magadha, located near Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) and about 90 kilometers southeast of Pataliputra (now Patna).
• Founded by Kumargupta I, a ruler of the Gupta Empire (circa 3rd to 6th century CE), it is regarded as one of the foremost centers of learning in the ancient world.
• The institution significantly contributed to the patronage of arts and academics during the 5th and 6th centuries CE, an era often referred to as the "Golden Age of India" by historians.
• The detailed records of Nalanda come from the chronicles of the 7th-century Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang.
• After the Gupta period, Nalanda continued to flourish with the support of the Pala Empire but faced decline after being attacked in the 1190s by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji, a Turko-Afghan general.
• Rediscovered in 1812 by Scottish surveyor Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, it was officially recognized as the ancient university site by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1861.
• Today, Nalanda is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the Government of India enacted a law in 2010 to revive this historic university.
• The contemporary Nalanda University at Rajgir has been designated as an "Institute of National Importance" by the Government of India.

Revival of Nalanda University:

• The initiative to revive Nalanda University was proposed by a former president in 2006.
• In 2007, the proposal to re-establish Nalanda was endorsed at the East Asia Summit in Mandaue, Philippines, and reiterated in the 2009 East Asia Summit in Hua Hin, Thailand.
• This vision gained traction with the passage of the Nalanda University Bill in 2010, leading to its operational launch in 2014 from a temporary location near Rajgir.
• Former President Pranab Mukherjee laid the foundation stone for the permanent campus in 2016 at Pilkhi village, Rajgir.
• Construction began in 2017, and the university became fully operational by 2022, culminating in the recent inauguration of the new campus.
• Seventeen countries, including Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, New Zealand, Portugal, Singapore, and South Korea, have contributed to the establishment of the university.

Features of the New Nalanda University Campus:

• The campus, spread over 455 acres, showcases a blend of modern and ancient architectural styles.
• It incorporates eco-friendly designs aimed at achieving a net-zero carbon footprint.
• The university comprises six schools focusing on Buddhist studies, historical studies, ecology, sustainable development, languages, literature, and international relations.
• Additionally, it has four specialized centers for Bay of Bengal Studies, Indo-Persian Studies, Conflict Resolution, and a Common Archival Resource Center.
• Programs offered include postgraduate and doctoral research courses, short-term certificate courses, and scholarships for international students, reflecting the university's commitment to academic excellence on a global scale.

Highlights of the PM's Address at the New Nalanda University Inauguration:

• The establishment of Nalanda University symbolizes that knowledge cannot be extinguished.
• The university aims to enhance the concept of global brotherhood and signifies India's developmental journey.
• The Renaissance of Nalanda will showcase India's capabilities and position the country as a global hub for knowledge and education.
• Historical evidence shows that nations attain economic and cultural leadership through advancements in education.
• India currently boasts 23 IITs, 21 IIMs, and has seen the establishment of a new university each week over the past decade, alongside a new industrial training institute every ten days.
• Significant reforms are underway in the education sector, including the implementation of the National Education Policy 2020.