Hoysalas: Polity and Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Overview

• The Hoysalas of Dwarsmudra, known in history for their rise to prominence in South India between the 11th and 14th centuries, originated in the Kannadiga region. Belur initially served as the center of their activities, later shifting to Halebidu. The Hoysalas emerged during a time when other regional powers, such as the western Chalukyas of Kalyani, Cholas, Pandyas, Kakatiyas, Kalachuris, and Yadavas of Devgiri, were also significant.
• The weakening of the Cholas and Pandyas facilitated the Hoysalas’ rise to power. The dynasty was linked to the Western Gangas, with Nripa Kama II as their ruler, who defeated various chiefs in Malnad and other regions.

Foundation and Expansion:

• Vishnuvardhana is credited as the real founder of the Hoysala dynasty, as indicated by historical inscriptions. He expanded the kingdom significantly, conquering territories like Ananale, Elumale, and Bayal-nadu. By 1185 CE, the kingdom's borders included regions like Kongu, Kanchi, and parts of the Arabian Sea.

Consolidation Under Narasimha I and Narasimha II:

• Narasimha I, Vishnuvardhana’s successor, further expanded the kingdom, incorporating regions like Vikramesvaram and Kongu. His reign marked the peak of Hoysala power, with significant influence over the Kerala region.
• Narasimha II strengthened ties with the Cholas through marriage alliances, which helped fend off threats from the Pandyas. The Hoysala kingdom reached its zenith during this period, with Narasimha II also granting Chera territories to his son-in-law, Rajaraja Chola III.

Decline and Final Years:

• The last powerful king of the Hoysalas was Somevara, who was recognized as a protector of the Chola lineage. By 1229 CE, the kingdom had expanded significantly, but the later years saw a decline, with Narasimha III and Ballala III ruling during this period.
• The final signs of disintegration appeared under Ballala III, culminating in the conquest by Alauddin’s forces led by Malik Kafur in 1310-1311 CE, marking the end of Hoysala dominance in the region.

King and His Officials

In the Hoysala kingdom:

• Crowned queens held significant power, with their own ministers and the ability to lead military campaigns.
• Uncrowned queens did not possess such authority.
• The yuvaraja, or heir to the throne, was second in command and sometimes acted as governor, but was not more powerful than the dannayakas/dandanayaks.
• Mandaleshvaras, once independent or feudal lords under the Chalukyas or Rashtrakutas, were similar to crowned queens.
• Mandalikas were small rulers, and samantas were frontier chiefs with hereditary lands.

Bureaucracy:

• Dannayakas/dandayaks were the highest officials, serving as army generals and holding important positions. The king would sometimes consult the maha-pradhans for assistance.
• Special titles like sarvadhikari and param-visvasi were given to distinguished individuals.
• Nayaks oversaw foot and horse soldiers, and inspectors monitored the dannayakas.
• Vicaris were sent by the king for various administrative tasks, including Sandhi-vigrahi, the foreign affairs minister responsible for alliances and negotiations with other rajas.
• Generals often led military campaigns, with roles like senapati(commander) or samasta-senadhipati(commander-in-chief), usually from the Brahmana community.
• After battles, commanders received honors, such as badges and the granting of tax-exempt grants to support families of fallen generals.

Inscriptions mention various administrative bodies and villages, including sabhas(meetings of Brahmanas), non-Brahmana villages (urs), and kaluvallis(hamlets). Officials like nad-heggade(sheriffs) and nad-prabhus(deputy sheriffs) managed the nad/nadu administration.

• Pattanas were bustling trade centers, often with nanadesis(districts) and pattana-svamis(mayors) overseeing them. Some pattanas, like rajadhani-pattanas, were large cities.
• Strict punishments were imposed for wrongdoing, and armed guards ensured road safety. Compensation was provided for crops damaged by marching forces during campaigns.

Land Revenue

State revenue from land sales was significant. Historically, land taxes were paid in cash or other forms. Permanent land revenue settlement, known as "siddhaya," ranged from 1/6th to 1/7th of the gross produce. Land measurement varied by region,with "kambas" used as a standard. However, the list of taxes imposed on commoners was extensive.

Various taxes included:

• War tax (vira-sese)
• Charges for fodder and horse contributions (kudureya-sese)
• Care of royal elephants (aneya-sese)
• Gifts for the camp (kataka-sese)
• Taxes for royal campaigns (nallavu-nallettu)
• Taxes at the time of coronation (patta-baddha)
• Taxes for the birth of a son (putrotsaha)

Another source of revenue was through fines imposed for legal violations. Nad assemblies also imposed taxes and fines, such as maduve tax, loom tax, oil-press tax, and dyer tax.Agriculture
Agriculture was the primary economic activity, with the majority of the population engaged in farming. The land was fertile and capable of producing multiple crops. Despite this, the land revenue system was complex and burdensome, with numerous taxes imposed on farmers.

Settlement Patterns:

• Settlement patterns during this period were influenced by the agrarian economy. Villages and towns were often established near fertile lands, water sources, and trade routes. The distribution of land and resources played a crucial role in determining the location and growth of settlements.

Land Grants:

• Land grants were a common practice during this period, often given to religious institutions, brahmanas, or military officials. These grants were made with the intention of promoting agricultural development and strengthening the state’s administrative control over land.

Taxation:

• Taxation during this period was varied and extensive. It included not only land revenue but also various other taxes imposed on different economic activities. The complexity of the taxation system often led to disputes and grievances among the peasantry.

Role of the State:

• The state played a crucial role in overseeing agricultural production, land revenue collection, and maintaining law and order. The administration was responsible for ensuring the smooth functioning of the agrarian economy and addressing the grievances of the peasantry.

Challenges:

• Despite the agrarian prosperity, challenges such as natural disasters, invasions, and administrative inefficiencies sometimes affected agricultural production and revenue collection. The resilience of the agrarian economy in the face of these challenges was crucial for the stability of the state.

Trade, Merchants, and the State

• Source of Revenue: Trade, commerce, and agriculture were significant sources of revenue for the state. Taxes on goods were typically paid in cash.
• Dependence on Merchants: The state relied heavily on merchants for essential supplies like arms, elephants, and horses. This dependence fostered a closer relationship between the state and merchants.
• Titles and Recognition: Wealthy merchants were sometimes granted titles such as Rajasresthigal (royal merchants) and were considered vital members of towns, known as pura mula stambha. For instance, Ayyavole Ainnuruvar, a merchant from Karnataka, had connections with various regions including Anga, Vanga, Kashmira, Singhala, and Chakragotta.
• Administrative Roles: Merchants were also involved in administrative roles within nadus (sub-divisions), towns, and other localities. Some merchants participated in military campaigns. An example is Nagrasetti, who died in the battle of Sige in 1145 CE, as mentioned in the Ballaru inscription.
• Settlement and Administration: Many merchants from regions like Gujarat, Kerala, and Andhra settled in Hoyasala territory and took on significant administrative roles. Marisetti of Ayyavole, a bangle merchant noted in the Kudalaru inscription (1177-78 CE), moved to Hoyasala country and became a prominent figure, referred to as mahaprabhu or “great officer.” His great-grandson, Perumadideva, held titles like mahapradhan (great minister) and tantrapala (foreign minister) under Ballala II.
• Minting and Temple Donations: Some merchants rose to the rank of pattanasvami/pattanasetti and were responsible for minting coins. An 1188 CE document mentions Kammata (mint) Chattisetti in this role. These merchants also made significant donations to temples and contributed to their construction and repair.
• Temple Construction: Inscriptions from 1117 CE indicate that the mothers of two royal merchants built a Jaina temple. Similarly, the Dyampura inscription mentions that in 1188, Bammisetti’s son, Vankagavuda, constructed the Bammeshvara temple independently.
• Contributions to Irrigation: Merchants were instrumental in land reclamation, well digging, tank construction, and other irrigation projects. Sakayya, the son of Palagesetti, dug the Arapamma tank and built a sluice at Sirivur in 1027 CE.
• Increased Involvement: During the 12th and 13th centuries, merchants played a more significant role in temple construction in the Hoyasala state compared to the 11th century, indicating their increased involvement and influence.

Culture Religion

• The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the increasing followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century reflected a decline in Jainism. Notable sites of Jain worship in Hoysala territory include Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.
• Buddhism in South India began to decline in the 8th century with the rise of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy. During the Hoysala period, Dambal and Balligavi were primarily centers of Buddhist worship.
• Shantala Devi, the queen of Vishnuvardhana, was a Jain but commissioned the Hindu Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur, showcasing the royal family's tolerance for all religions.
• During the Hoysala rule, significant religious developments occurred in present-day Karnataka, inspired by philosophers Basavanna, Madhvacharya, and Ramanujacharya.
• While the origins of the Virashaiva faith are debated, it is generally associated with Basavanna in the 12th century. Some argue that five earlier saints—Renuka, Daruka, Ekorama, Panditharadhya, and Vishwaradhya—founded Virashaivism, a sect emphasizing devotion to Lord Shiva.
• Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints advocated a caste-free faith. In his Vachanas, he appealed to the masses in simple Kannada, emphasizing that “work is worship” (Kayakave Kailasa).
• Madhvacharya challenged Shankaracharya’s teachings, asserting the reality of the world over illusion. He emphasized Lord Vishnu’s virtues and promoted Dvaita philosophy (dualism), distinguishing between Paramathma (the supreme being) and the dependent principle of life. His philosophy gained traction, leading to the establishment of eight Mathas (monasteries) in Udupi.
• Ramanujacharya, head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam, preached the path of devotion (bhakti marga) and authored Sribhashya, critiquing Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy.
• These religious developments profoundly influenced culture, literature, poetry, and architecture in South India. Scholars wrote significant literary and poetic works based on the teachings of these philosophers in subsequent centuries.
• The Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar Empire embraced Vaishnavism. A Vaishnava temple featuring an image of Ramanujacharya is located in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the later Mysore Kingdom produced Vaishnavite works upholding Ramanujacharya’s teachings.
• King Vishnuvardhana constructed numerous temples following his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. Later saints of Madhvacharya’s order, such as Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha, and devotees (dasa) like Vijaya Dasa and Gopaladasa from Karnataka, spread his teachings widely.
• Madhvacharya’s teachings influenced later philosophers like Vallabhacharya in Gujarat and Chaitanya in Bengal. A new wave of devotion (bhakti) in the 17th and 18th centuries drew inspiration from his teachings.

Society

• The society during the Hoysala period reflected the emerging religious, political, and cultural developments of the time.
• Society became increasingly sophisticated, with varying status of women. Some royal women actively participated in administrative matters, as seen in records describing Queen Umadevi’s administration of Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II during his military campaigns in northern territories. She also fought and defeated feudal rebels.
• This contrasted with contemporary literature, such as Vikramankadeva Charita by Bilhana, which depicted women as retiring and unconcerned with state affairs.
• Records highlight women’s involvement in the fine arts, exemplified by Queen Shantala Devi’s skills in dance and music, and the 12th-century Vachana poet and Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi, known for her devotion to the bhakti movement. She was both a pioneer of women’s emancipation and a figure with a transcendental worldview.
• Temple dancers (Devadasis), well-educated and accomplished in the arts, commonly performed in temples. Their qualifications granted them more freedom than other urban and rural women, who were often confined to mundane tasks. The Indian caste system, prevalent in most of India, also existed in Hoysala society.
• Trade on the west coast brought various foreigners to India, including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Chinese, and people from the Malay Peninsula. Migration within Southern India due to the empire's expansion led to an influx of new cultures and skills. Royal patronage of education, arts, architecture, and religion, along with the establishment of new forts and military outposts, resulted in the large-scale relocation of people.
• In South India, towns called Pattana or Pattanam, along with marketplaces like Nagara or Nagaram, served as city nuclei. Some towns, such as Shravanabelagola, evolved from religious settlements in the 7th century to important trading centers by the 12th century with the arrival of affluent traders. Towns like Belur attained a regal atmosphere with the construction of the Chennakesava Temple by King Vishnuvardhana.
• Large temples, supported by royal patronage, served religious, social, and judicial purposes, elevating the king to the status of “God on earth.” Temple building had both commercial and religious functions, accommodating all Hindu sects.
• Shaiva merchants of Halebidu financed the construction of the Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the Chennakesava temple in Belur, enhancing Halebidu’s significance. Hoysala temples, although secular, encouraged pilgrims from all Hindu sects, with the Kesava temple at Somanathapura being an exception, featuring strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions.
• Temples built by wealthy landlords in rural areas addressed fiscal, political, cultural, and religious needs of agrarian communities. Regardless of patronage, large temples provided employment to hundreds of individuals from various guilds and professions, sustaining local communities. Hindu temples began to resemble wealthy Buddhist monasteries in structure.

Literature

• During the Hoysala rule, while Sanskrit literature remained popular, royal patronage of local Kannada scholars increased. In the 12th century, some scholars wrote works in the Champu mixed prose-verse style, but distinctive Kannada metres gained wider acceptance. Metres such as Sangatya, Shatpadi, Tripadi, and Ragale became fashionable. Jain works continued to praise the virtues of Tirthankaras (Jain ascetics).
• The Hoysala court supported scholars like Janna, Rudrabhatta, Harihara, and his nephew Raghavanka, whose works are considered masterpieces in Kannada. In 1209, Jain scholar Janna wrote Yashodharacharite, a story about a king who intends to sacrifice two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Pitying the boys, the king releases them and abandons the practice of human sacrifice. Janna received the title “Emperor among poets” (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II for this work.
• Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (believer in monistic philosophy), is the earliest well-known Brahminical writer. Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II, was his patron. He wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in the Champu style, based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, narrating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his battle with the demon Banasura.

Harihara (also known as Harisvara), a Virashaiva writer and patron of King Narasimha I, wrote Girijakalyana in the old Jain Champu style, describing the marriage of Lord Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. He was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers independent from the Vachana literary tradition. Coming from a family of accountants (Karanikas) in Halebidu, he spent many years in Hampi writing over a hundred Ragales (poems in blank verse) in praise of Lord Virupaksha (a form of Lord Shiva). Raghavanka was the first to introduce the Shatpadi metre into Kannada literature with his Harishchandra kavya, considered a classic despite occasional violations of strict Kannada grammar.

Madhvacharya, in Sanskrit, wrote Rigbhshya on Brahmasutras (logical explanations of Hindu scriptures, the Vedas) and many polemical works countering the doctrines of other Vedic schools. He relied more on Puranic literature than the Vedas for logical proof of his philosophy. Vidyatirtha’s Rudraprshnabhashya is another notable writing.