Impact of Colonial Rule On Indian Society | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Social Background of Indian Nationalism 

The emergence of Indian nationalism has been traditionally attributed to the response of Indian society to the stimuli generated by British colonial rule. The creation of new institutions, opportunities, and resources under the British Raj was not welcomed by the colonial rulers. Initially, British scholars and administrators denied the existence of any sense of national unity in India. However, as the nationalist movement gained strength towards the end of the 19th century, British scholars changed their stance and began to take credit for the rise of nationalism in India.

• Indian nationalism can be seen as a product of various factors, including the global upsurge of nationalist ideas spurred by the French Revolution, the Indian Renaissance, the modernization introduced by the British in India, and the strong reaction against British imperial policies in India.
• The British Raj played a significant role in fostering political unity in India by establishing a centralized administrative system and unifying the country under a single rule. The establishment of peace and order after the chaotic conditions of the 18th century, along with the unification of the judicial system and codification of civil and criminal laws, further contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism. The highly trained, professional Indian Civil Service managed the district administration across the country, ensuring a consistent administrative structure.

Development of rapid means of transport and communications
The development of rapid means of transport and communication played a significant role in promoting national unity and fostering the growth of nationalism in India. The need for efficient administration, military defense, and economic expansion pushed for the establishment of modern transport systems. A network of roads was created to connect various provinces and metropolitan centers with the rural areas.

• One of the most significant developments in this regard was the construction of railways in India, which began in the 1850s. By 1880, around 8,500 miles of rail tracks had been built, which expanded to 25,000 miles by 1900. The railways not only facilitated transportation but also greatly contributed to the growth of nationalism. As noted by Edwin Arnold in 1865, railways had the potential to unite India as a nation in a way that dynasties and rulers could not achieve.
• Additionally, the development of the modern postal system and the introduction of electric telegraph in the 1850s played a crucial role in unifying the country. With affordable postage rates for letters, newspapers, and parcels, the postal system transformed the social, educational, intellectual, and political lives of the people. National literature could now be circulated throughout the country, reaching even the most remote areas. The electric telegraph revolutionized the speed of message transmission, enabling people in different parts of India to maintain regular contact with one another.
• These modern means of communication allowed for the establishment of political organizations like the Indian National Congress, the All-India Trade Union Congress, the All India Kisan Sabha, and the All-India Muslim League. These organizations could not have come into existence or functioned on a national scale without the facilities provided by modern railways, motor buses, and the communication services of the Post and Telegraph Department.

Introduction of Modern Education

The introduction of the modern education system in India during the colonial period played a significant role in shaping the country's political thinking. Key figures like Sir Charles E. Trevelyan, T.B. Macaulay, and Lord William Bentick initiated the system of English education in India in 1835. They believed that this would help in the efficient administration of the country and eventually lead to the development of a better political system.

• The English education system exposed Indians to liberal European thoughts and ideas from writers like Milton, Shelley, Bentham, Mill, Spencer, Rousseau, and Voltaire. This inspired the Indian intelligentsia and made them aware of the ideals of liberty, nationality, and self-government, highlighting the outdated nature of British rule in India.
• The English-educated Indians pursued various professions such as junior administrators, lawyers, doctors, and teachers. Some of them even traveled to England for higher education, where they witnessed the functioning of political institutions in a free country. Upon returning to India, they found the atmosphere oppressive and were denied basic rights. This led to the rise of a middle-class intelligentsia who were conscious of their political rights and discontented with the status quo.
• This English-educated intelligentsia provided leadership to the emerging Indian political associations. The spread of the English language across India also served as a common medium for communication, enabling people from different regions to come together on a common platform and organize movements with an all-India character.

Emergence of Modern Press

• The emergence of the modern press in India, both in English and local languages, can be attributed to British rule in the country. European settlers were the first to establish printing presses and publish newspapers and affordable literature in India. Gradually, the vernacular press evolved, following the Western model. Despite facing numerous restrictions imposed by the colonial rulers, Indian journalism flourished rapidly. The latter half of the 19th century witnessed remarkable growth in Indian-owned English and vernacular newspapers. By 1877, there were around 169 newspapers published in local languages, with a circulation nearing 100,000.
• The Indian press played a significant role in shaping public opinion, organizing political movements, addressing public controversies, and fostering nationalism. Newspapers such as the Indian Mirror, the Bengalee, the Amrita Bazar Patrika, Bombay Chronicle, the Hindu Patriot, the Mahratta, Kesari, Andhra Prakasika, The Hindu, Indu Prakash, and Kohinur, published in both English and Indian languages, shed light on the inadequacies of British Indian administration. They also helped popularize concepts such as representative government, liberty, democratic institutions, home rule, and independence among the masses. It is fair to say that the press became a reflection of Indian nationalism and a primary medium for public education.

Modernization of Indian Tradition

• In his book 'Modernization of Indian Tradition,' Yogendra Singh examines the process of modernization in India from a sociological perspective, focusing on the key concepts of 'social structure' and 'tradition.' Singh critically analyzes the prevailing sets of conceptual formulations on social change and modernization, such as Sanskritization, Westernization, Little and Great Tradition, Universalization, and parochialization, pointing out their shortcomings in analyzing structural changes and their logical inadequacies. 
• Singh attributes the sources of breakdown in the Indian process of modernization to structural inconsistencies, such as democratization without the spread of civic culture, bureaucratization without commitment to universalistic norms, and modernization without meaningful changes in the stratification system. However, he also points out that modernization in Indian society has taken a conciliatory pattern, showing the capacity to absorb the shocks of tensions and contradictions, minimizing the chances of structural breakdown. Democratic values have taken root in the political system, and traditions thrive in the process of modernization without creating hurdles on its path.
• Despite its limitations in focusing only on selected sociological variables and leaving other variables like demographic and economic factors untouched, Singh's paradigm of modernization is unique and presents a broad, integrated view of modernization in India. This analysis is particularly relevant for the UPSC exam, as it provides a comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between tradition and modernization in Indian society, and the challenges and opportunities that arise from these processes.

Protests & Movements During Colonial Period 

During the colonial era in India, numerous protests and movements emerged across different sections of society. These movements aimed to address various social, economic, and religious issues present during that time. The protests and movements can be broadly grouped into three categories: Peasant Movements, Backward Caste Movements, and Socio-Religious Movements. 

1. Peasant Movements: The agricultural workers, or peasants, started movements to demand a reduction in rent on agricultural land. They were burdened by the exploitative policies of the colonial government and the landlords. These movements sought to improve the economic conditions of the peasants and fight against the oppressive measures imposed on them by the ruling elites. Some significant peasant movements during this period include the Indigo Revolt, Deccan Riots, and the Bardoli Satyagraha.
2. Backward Caste Movements: The lower caste people, often referred to as the backward castes, initiated movements to challenge the rigid caste system prevalent in Indian society. These movements aimed to break the age-old hierarchical structure and promote equality among all citizens, regardless of their caste. The leaders of these movements sought to create awareness about the discriminatory practices faced by the lower castes and advocated for their social upliftment. Some notable leaders of the backward caste movements were Jyotirao Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, and E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar).
3. Socio-Religious Movements: Various socio-religious movements emerged during the colonial period as an attempt to reform and revitalize Indian society. These movements targeted the superstitious practices, irrational beliefs, and social evils prevalent in society. The reformers aimed to create a more progressive and rational society based on scientific thinking and humanitarian values. The socio-religious movements played a crucial role in shaping the social, cultural, and intellectual landscape of India during the colonial era. Some prominent socio-religious movements include the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and the Ramakrishna Mission.

Peasant Movements

The study of peasant movements has become an essential area of research in India's social movements, given that the country is primarily agrarian. The complex nature of agrarian structure, class hierarchy, and the relationship between caste and class have contributed to the emergence of various peasant movements throughout history. This article aims to discuss the nature and features of these movements to understand their role in social change.

• Agrarian Structure and Class Hierarchy: India's agrarian structure is characterized by a diversity of land systems and agrarian relations, resulting in an elaborate structure of agrarian classes. Daniel Thorner has identified three major agrarian classes in India: Maliks (big landlords and rich landowners), Kisans (small landowners and tenants), and Mazdoors (landless laborers and sharecroppers). This classification broadly reflects the Indian reality, with the agrarian hierarchy often corresponding with the caste hierarchy. Understanding this structural background is crucial to examining the peasant movements in India.
• Peasant Movements: Nature and Features: Peasant movements in India have been diverse, including violent and nonviolent, organized and sporadic attempts to change exploitative systems or seek redress for particular grievances. The 19th century witnessed several militant peasant movements, such as the Indigo Revolt (1859-60) in Bengal and the Deccan Riots (1875) in western Maharashtra. These revolts were directed against the oppressive landowning and money-lending classes.
• Gandhian Agrarian Movements: During the early 20th century, peasant grievances became an integral part of India's freedom struggle. The Champaran Movement (1917), the Kheda Satyagrah (1918), and the Bardoli Satyagrah (1928) were major non-violent anti-British struggles led by Mahatma Gandhi. These movements addressed minor agrarian issues but played a significant role in raising political awareness among the masses.
• Peasant Movements in Bihar and Bengal: Between 1920 and 1946, several peasant organizations and movements emerged in Bihar and Bengal to protest against the deplorable conditions of middle and poor peasants. The most effective and widespread of these was the Tebhaga struggle (1946-47) in Bengal, which sought to retain two-thirds of the produce for sharecroppers. This movement resulted from the politicization of the peasantry, facilitated by the Communist Party of India and the Kisan Sabha.
• The Telangana Peasant Struggle: On the eve of India's independence, the Telangana peasant struggle (1946-1951) was another significant movement of poor peasants. This struggle was against the Nizam-ruled Hyderabad State and lasted for five years.

Kisan Sabha

The Kisan Sabha, also known as the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS), emerged as a significant force in the Indian political landscape during the early 20th century. This organization played a critical role in raising the political consciousness of the Indian peasantry and mobilizing them in the fight against British colonial rule, as well as against the oppressive Zamindari system. The formation of the Kisan Sabha was a result of the growing dissatisfaction among peasants and the realization that the Indian National Congress was not adequately addressing their concerns.

• The establishment of the AIKS in 1936 marked a significant milestone in the Indian peasant movement. The organization adopted a manifesto that aimed to secure complete freedom from economic exploitation and achieve full economic and political power for the peasants and workers. The Kisan Sabha focused on mass mobilization and aimed to unite all sections of the peasantry in the fight against imperialism and feudalism. Notable agitations organized by the AIKS included the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Bakhshat movement in Bihar, the Punnapra-Vayalar in Kerala, the Pepsu Tenant's armed struggle in Punjab, and the Telangana armed struggle in Andhra Pradesh.
• After India gained independence in 1947, the AIKS underwent a significant transformation. The organization became a branch of the Communist Party of India and shifted its focus to protecting the rights of peasants and liberating them from socioeconomic exploitation. However, the AIKS also experienced divisions and fragmentation, with various factions aligning themselves with different political parties. This has resulted in a weakened and divided peasant movement, unable to effectively address the common concerns of the peasantry.
• Despite these challenges, the AIKS remains an important organization in contemporary India, with links to various international peasant associations. While its impact may have diminished compared to its earlier years, the Kisan Sabha still plays a role in advocating for the rights and welfare of the Indian peasantry. In conclusion, the Kisan Sabha has played a crucial role in Indian history, mobilizing and empowering the peasantry in the fight against colonial rule and feudal oppression. The legacy of this movement continues to inspire and shape the struggles of the Indian peasant community in the present day.

Conclusion

The emergence of Indian nationalism can be attributed to various factors, including the influence of British colonial rule, modernization, and the rise of communication and education systems. The development of transport, the spread of English education, and the growth of the press all contributed to the growth of nationalist sentiment in India. Additionally, the formation of organizations like the Kisan Sabha and various peasant movements played a significant role in mobilizing and empowering the Indian population against colonial and feudal oppression. These factors combined to create a strong sense of national identity and laid the foundation for India's struggle for independence and its subsequent development as a democratic nation.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Impact of Colonial Rule On Indian Society

What were the major factors that contributed to the emergence of Indian nationalism during the British colonial rule?

The major factors include the global upsurge of nationalist ideas spurred by the French Revolution, the Indian Renaissance, the modernization introduced by the British in India, and the strong reaction against British imperial policies in India.

How did the development of transportation and communication affect Indian nationalism?

The development of rapid means of transport and communication, such as railways, roads, postal systems, and telegraph services, played a significant role in promoting national unity and fostering the growth of nationalism in India. These modern means of communication allowed for the establishment of political organizations and facilitated the dissemination of national literature throughout the country.

What role did the modern education system play in shaping the political thinking of Indians during the colonial period?

The introduction of the modern education system in India exposed Indians to liberal European thoughts and ideas from writers like Milton, Shelley, Bentham, Mill, Spencer, Rousseau, and Voltaire. This inspired the Indian intelligentsia and made them aware of the ideals of liberty, nationality, and self-government, highlighting the outdated nature of British rule in India.

How did the modern press contribute to the growth of Indian nationalism during the colonial era?

The modern press in India played a significant role in shaping public opinion, organizing political movements, addressing public controversies, and fostering nationalism. Newspapers published in both English and Indian languages shed light on the inadequacies of British Indian administration and helped popularize concepts such as representative government, liberty, democratic institutions, home rule, and independence among the masses.

What were the major peasant movements in India during the colonial period?

Some significant peasant movements during this period include the Indigo Revolt, Deccan Riots, and the Bardoli Satyagraha. These movements sought to improve the economic conditions of the peasants and fight against the oppressive measures imposed on them by the ruling elites.