Imperialism and Colonialism: Australia | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• In the year 1770, Captain James Cook from Great Britain journeyed to Australia and made landfall at a place he named Botany Bay. During this expedition, he claimed the Australian coastline for the British crown. However, it took another 18 years before any serious efforts were made to establish a colony in the region.
• In 1788, Australia was selected for settlement, and colonization officially began when the first British expedition, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived at Port Jackson. This marked the foundation of the colony of New South Wales.

Reasons for the Colonization of Australia

• Loss of American Colonies: After losing the American Colonies in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), Great Britain sought new land for a British colony.
• Overcrowding in British Prisons: The need to address overcrowding in British prisons prompted the search for a new penal colony. The American colonies had previously fulfilled this role, and with their independence, a new convict settlement was necessary. Botany Bay was deemed suitable.
• Lack of Opposition: Australia was seen as an ideal location for colonization because it was an uninhabited continent that the British could occupy without resistance. Although Dutch navigators had explored parts of Australia before Captain Cook, they did not attempt to settle there. A French expedition had also visited Botany Bay in 1788 but did not stay.

Captain Cook observed the native population but found them largely passive and unwilling to resist European encroachment. The establishment of a colony was possible through:

• Persuading indigenous inhabitants to accept British rule.
• Purchasing land from indigenous people.
• Claiming land based on discovery and effective occupation.

Phases of Colonization

• Australia was initially established as a penal colony where criminals were sent. Between 1788 and 1868, Britain transported over 160,000 convicts from its overcrowded prisons to the Australian colonies.
• Convict discipline was strict, with punishments such as flogging or stricter confinement for those who refused to work or obey orders.
• Despite its harsh conditions, Australia was deemed suitable for a penal colony. The indigenous people were nomadic hunter-gatherers with no established communities or infrastructure. The wildlife was difficult to tame or farm, and the climate was hot, with seasonal rivers that often dried up.
• There were no obvious natural resources to exploit, which made the continent less appealing for traditional colonization. However, its remoteness and harshness made it ideal for sending criminals and undesirables away from Britain.
• Transporting prisoners halfway around the world was not economically viable for the sole purpose of addressing prison overcrowding. Many convicts were skilled tradesmen or farmers who helped establish the infrastructure for the new colony.
• Convicts were often granted pardons before or upon completing their sentences and were given land to farm. The first settlement led to the founding of Sydney, the establishment of farming, industry, and commerce, and the exploration and settlement of other regions.

Some settlers occupied land beyond authorized limits, becoming known as squatters and forming a powerful landowning class.

Reasons for Ending Convict Transportation:

• Established colonial areas began refusing to accept convicts as they attracted emigrants willing to do the labor.
• Legal settlers resented having convicts sent to them.
• Transportation became expensive, prompting the government to seek cheaper solutions for criminal issues.
• A mass demonstration in 1849 in Sydney against convict transportation influenced the government’s decision to end the practice, reminiscent of the American colonies’ rebellion.
• Transportation was abolished after the Penal Servitude Act of 1857, though some convicts were still transported afterward, with the last transportations occurring in 1868.

Phase II: Arrival of Free Immigrants

• Between 1793 and 1850, nearly 200,000 free settlers chose to migrate to Australia to start anew. Most were English agricultural workers or domestic servants, along with Irish and Scottish migrants. These settlers formed the foundation of early Australian society.
• The discovery of coal and the introduction of merino sheep played significant roles in developing Australia, with sheep-rearing becoming a vital industry. Free emigrants flooded in, gradually opening up the interior and establishing new settlements.

Six flourishing colonies emerged:

• New South Wales
• Queensland
• Victoria
• South Australia
• Western Australia
• Tasmania

The Gold Rush:

• In 1851, the discovery of gold deposits attracted a large influx of immigrants and accelerated Australia’s development. Thousands of Chinese immigrants came to Australia during the 1850s gold rush. By 1901, the Chinese community was the third-largest migrant group in Australia, after the British and Germans.
• When the gold supply dwindled, many Chinese immigrants turned to market gardening or established businesses like restaurants and laundries.

Laborers:

• In the late 19th century, South Sea Islanders were recruited for work on Queensland sugar plantations, and Japanese divers contributed to the pearling industry.

Impact of Colonization on Native Aboriginal Population

Introduction:

• Before British settlement, Australia was home to over 500 Indigenous groups, totaling around 750,000 people. Indigenous Aboriginal people had lived on the continent for at least 50,000 years.
• From the outset of colonization, Indigenous people resisted the encroachment on their land and the subsequent impact on their cultures and communities.

Population Decline:

• By 1800, it is estimated that the Indigenous population of Australia had decreased by 90% due to several factors:
• The introduction of new diseases
• Settler acquisition of Indigenous lands
• Direct and violent conflict with the colonizers

Diseases:

• The most immediate consequence of colonization was the spread of epidemic diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, which decimated many Indigenous communities.

Massacres:

• Massacres of Indigenous people often occurred through mass shootings or by driving groups of people off cliffs.

Process of Decolonization

• The New South Wales Legislative Council, established in 1825, was the oldest legislative body in Australia, created to advise the Governor of New South Wales.
• The Australian Patriotic Association, Australia’s first political party formed in 1835, advocated for democratic government in New South Wales.
• By the mid-19th century, there was a strong push for representative and responsible government in the Australian colonies, influenced by:
• The democratic spirit of the gold fields, where people worked side by side.
• Reform movements in Europe, the United States, and the British Empire.
• The end of convict transportation in the 1840s and 1850s accelerated reform efforts.
• Australia’s first parliamentary elections for the New South Wales Legislative Council were held in 1843, with voting rights (for males only) linked to property ownership or financial capacity.
• In 1850, voter rights were expanded in New South Wales, and elections for legislative councils were conducted in Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania.
• The Australian Colonies Government Act of 1850 was a significant development, granting representative constitutions to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania.
• The colonies enthusiastically drafted constitutions, leading to democratically progressive parliaments, although the colonial upper houses retained some power.
• Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies gained responsible government, managing most of their affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.
• The Colonial Office in London maintained control over foreign affairs, defense, and international shipping.

Closer Union of Australian Colonies

• Initially, the Australian colonies had a separatist attitude, exacerbated by tariff differences.
• However, the emergence of European powers, particularly Germany in the Pacific, and the rise of Japan highlighted the weaknesses of disunion.
• Concerted efforts were also needed to exclude Chinese immigrants, prompting renewed discussions on federation.
• After extensive discussions, the need for closer union was accepted.
• The Australian Commonwealth Act of 1901 federated the various Australian colonies, with New Zealand opting not to join.
• The Commonwealth of Australia was established and became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907.
• Britain’s Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most constitutional links between Australia and the UK, with Australia adopting it in 1942.

New Zealand

Early History and Colonial Period:

• New Zealand was initially part of the colony of New South Wales until it became a separate Colony of New Zealand on July 1, 1841.
• The colony gained a representative government in 1852, and the first New Zealand Parliament convened in 1854.

Self-Governance and Capital Relocation:

• By 1856, the colony achieved effective self-governance, taking charge of all domestic matters except for native policy, which was granted in the mid-1860s.
• Due to concerns about the South Island potentially becoming a separate colony, Premier Alfred Domett proposed moving the capital from Auckland to a location near the Cook Strait.
• Wellington was chosen for its central location and excellent harbour, and Parliament held its first session there in 1865.

New Zealand Wars and Political Developments:

• As immigration increased, land disputes led to the New Zealand Wars in the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in significant loss and confiscation of Māori land. The Māori are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand.
• In 1891, the Liberal Party, led by John Ballance, became the first organized political party in New Zealand.
• Under Richard Seddon, the Liberal Government implemented important social and economic reforms. Notably, in 1893, New Zealand became the first country to grant women the right to vote.

Dominion Status and Independence:

• In 1907, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. The title “Dominion of New Zealand” was established.
• In 1947, New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, which ensured that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without its consent.

New Guinea

Early European Contact and Colonization:

• The first European contact with New Guinea occurred in the 16th century through Portuguese and Spanish sailors.
• In 1828, the Netherlands formally claimed the western half of the island as Netherlands New Guinea. Following a brief French annexation of New Ireland in 1883, the British colony of Queensland annexed southeastern New Guinea.
• However, the British government revoked the Queensland claim in 1884, assuming direct responsibility for the area when Germany claimed northeastern New Guinea as the protectorate of German New Guinea.

Colonial Administration and Governance:

• The first Dutch government posts in New Guinea were established in 1898 and 1902. Colonial administrators from Germany, the Netherlands, and Britain attempted to suppress inter-village warfare and headhunting practices within their territories.
• In 1905, the British government transferred some administrative responsibility for southeast New Guinea to Australia, renaming the area the “Territory of Papua.” In 1906, all remaining responsibility was transferred to Australia.
• During World War I, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, which became the Territory of New Guinea in 1920, administered by Australia under a League of Nations mandate. The territories under Australian administration were collectively known as The Territories of Papua and New Guinea until February 1942.

World War II and Aftermath:

• During World War II, Netherlands New Guinea and the Australian territories were invaded by Japanese forces. The Australian territories were placed under military administration and referred to simply as New Guinea. Papuans played a crucial role in assisting the Allies, fighting alongside Australian troops. The New Guinea Campaign resulted in approximately 216,000 deaths among Japanese, Australian, and U.S. soldiers, sailors, and airmen.
• After World War II, civil administration returned, and the Australian section was known as the Territory of Papua-New Guinea (1945–49) and later as Papua and New Guinea. While the rest of the Dutch East Indies gained independence as Indonesia on December 27, 1949, the Netherlands retained control over western New Guinea.
• In the 1950s, the Dutch government prepared Netherlands New Guinea for full independence, allowing elections in 1959. The elected New Guinea Council took office on April 5, 1961, choosing the name West Papua for the territory.
• On October 1, 1962, the Dutch transferred the territory to the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority, which lasted until May 1, 1963, when Indonesia took control. In 1969, Indonesia organized a referendum called the Act of Free Choice, where Papuan tribal elders agreed to continue the union with Indonesia under the 1962 New York Agreement.
• Resistance to Indonesian integration and occupation emerged through civil disobedience and the formation of the Free Papua Movement in 1965. Government-sponsored violence against West Papuans resulted in the deaths of over 100,000 Papuans, about one-sixth of the population.
• From 1971, the name Papua New Guinea was used for the Australian territory. On September 16, 1975, Australia granted full independence to Papua New Guinea.