Industrialization in Japan | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Tokugawa Shogunate Era

• During the Tokugawa Shogunate Era, Japan functioned as a feudal state, isolated from the outside world. The Emperor served merely as a symbolic figurehead, while real power resided with the Shogun. Originally the chief officer of the Emperor, the Shogun had managed to consolidate power and govern the country.
• Under the Shogunate, the bureaucracy operated through semi-feudal alliances involving regional daimyos (powerful feudal lords) and samurai (the warrior class). Despite this political structure, Japan's intellectual and cultural life thrived. Neo-Confucianism remained influential among the elite, often at the expense of Buddhism. The diversity among Confucian schools prevented the intellectual stagnation seen in China. Education expanded beyond the upper classes, leading to Japan achieving the highest literacy rate outside the Western world.
• While Confucianism was predominant, various intellectual currents emerged, with some groups showing interest in Western scientific advancements. The Japanese economy continued to grow, driven by expanding internal commerce and the spread of manufacturing into rural areas. However, by the 1850s, economic growth began to slow due to technological constraints on agriculture and a rising population. Rural uprisings reflected peasant discontent and contributed to the weakening of the Shogunate.

Opening of Japan to Western Exploitation:

• Japan, which had maintained a strict policy of seclusion, was forced open in 1853 when the United States Navy, under Commodore Matthew Perry, arrived in Japanese waters. The U.S. sought protection for American sailors and requested the opening of Japanese ports to American ships.
• Japan was compelled to sign a treaty that opened two ports to American vessels. By 1867, nearly all European nations had concluded similar treaties with Japan, securing commercial rights, open ports, extra-territorial rights, and control over tariffs.
• The shogunate bureaucrats had to yield to Western naval superiority, marking the beginning of Japan's forced engagement with the West.

Restoration of the Meiji Emperor (1868):

• The opening of Japan by foreign powers sparked an anti-foreign movement that eventually evolved into a push to abolish the Shogunate, which was blamed for succumbing to foreign pressures.
• The shogunate, having relied on isolationist policies, proved unable to cope with the challenges posed by foreign intervention. Many feudal lords, harboring strong anti-foreign sentiments, demanded the restoration of actual state power to the Emperor.
• In 1867, the Shogunate was abolished, and imperial authority was restored, marking the beginning of the Meiji era under Emperor Mutsuhito. This period would lead to Japan's rapid Westernization and industrialization.

Why Japan and not China?

• Japan and China, despite both being part of the same civilizational sphere, responded very differently to Western pressures in the 19th century.
• Both nations had chosen isolation from outside influences from about 1600 to the mid-19th century, which caused them to fall behind the West. However, their responses to the challenges of the time were markedly different.
• China had the capability to react to external challenges but failed to do so effectively. In contrast, Japan recognized the benefits of imitation and took decisive action in response to Western pressures.
• Japan's relatively lower population pressure, compared to China's population growth, also played a role in its more effective response.
• Politically, while China was experiencing a dynastic crisis by the mid-19th century, Japan maintained political and economic stability, which facilitated its ability to adapt and respond to external challenges.
• Japan's earlier advantages, gained during the Tokugawa period (1600-1868), played a crucial role in its response to Western pressures. During this time, Japan achieved:
• A high level of urbanization
• Well-developed road networks
• Improvements in agricultural techniques, including irrigation and rice cultivation
• Proto-industrial production, particularly in major cities like Osaka and Edo (Tokyo)
• Advancements in education and population control among the samurai and peasantry.
• These domestic advancements positioned Japan well to meet the challenges posed by the West.
• Japan effectively utilized its infrastructure, high literacy rates, and proto-industrial networks to adopt Western organizational forms and techniques. This included harnessing energy sources like coal and other fossil fuels for steam power.
• Japan's response to external pressures was more direct and successful than China's. The Japanese adapted to the challenges of industrialization and internal market reform, leading to significant institutional and societal changes.

Industrialization During the Meiji Era

Twin Policies:

• After the collapse of the Tokugawa government in 1868, the new Meiji government focused on becoming a wealthy nation with a strong military.
• It renegotiated treaties with Western powers, built infrastructure for industrialization, and created a modern navy and army to protect Japan and establish a buffer zone in Northeast Asia. This laid the foundation for Japan's future empire in Asia and the Pacific.

Internal Reconstruction of Japan (Facilitating Industrialization)

Centralization of Authority:

• The abolition of the Shogunate enabled the centralization of authority, which was essential for the state.
• Feudalism was eliminated, paving the way for a national organization.

Abolition of Feudalism:

• Feudal lords surrendered their lands to the Emperor, becoming ordinary subjects under the law.
• The Samurai class also gave up their privileges, leading to the abolition of feudalism.
• This allowed for the reorganization of the state on a national basis.
• The bureaucracy was reorganized and opened to those who passed civil service examinations.
• The swift and selfless change in Japan's governance was a rare historical occurrence.
• The new centralized administration expanded state power to implement economic and social changes.

National Army:

• With the end of feudalism, the national army replaced the Samurai as the military force, recruiting from all sections of society.
• This shift was a significant social change, erasing the distinction between the Samurai and commoners.
• Many Samurai transitioned into roles in commerce and politics.

Social Changes:

• The nationalization of the army led to the disappearance of the distinction between the Samurai and commoners, making everyone equal under the law.
• This equality prompted many Samurai to explore opportunities in commerce and politics.

Westernization and Industrialization of Japan

Imitation of the West:

• Japan closely studied Western Europe and adopted their institutions, economy, and technology.
• Officials were sent to Europe and the United States to learn about their economies, technologies, and political systems.
• In 1871, the Iwakura Mission traveled to Europe and the USA to study Western practices.
• This led to a state-led industrialization policy aimed at rapidly catching up with the West.

New Constitution:

• A new constitution was adopted, modeled on the Prussian system, with the Emperor as head of state and a representative assembly with two houses.
• This system balanced democracy with the need for effective governance.

New Code of Law:

• New legal codes based on French and Prussian models were established.
• Objectionable features of old laws, such as torture, were abolished.
• Japan aimed to eliminate extra-territoriality through these new codes.

Army and Navy:

• The army was reorganized on Prussian lines, equipped with modern weapons, and compulsory military service was introduced.
• Efforts were made to build a navy based on British models.
• Defence-related industries were established.

Industrialization (Primarily State-led):

• The abolition of feudal fiefs and the consolidation of power under a strong national government encouraged the spread of best practices in agriculture.
• The widespread diffusion of seed varieties significantly improved agricultural productivity.
• Expansion in agriculture (using traditional Japanese methods) and manufacturing (using imported Western technology) occurred simultaneously.
• Modern industry initially emerged in textiles, particularly cotton and silk, often based in rural home workshops.
• Government initiatives led manufacturing due to a lack of capital and unfamiliar technology.
• A Ministry of Industry was established in 1870 to set economic policy and operate certain industries.
• Model factories were created for industrial experience, and an expanded education system provided technical training.
• Private enterprise was involved in the growing economy, especially in textiles.
• Merchants in Osaka, well-versed in proto-industrial production, invested heavily in steam-driven textile mills during the 1880s.

Progress of Education:

• The government implemented a Western-based education system for all young people, sending thousands of students abroad and hiring Westerners to teach modern subjects in Japan.
• Compulsory elementary education was introduced for both boys and girls.
• Universities and technical schools were founded under state supervision, emphasizing vocational education.
• Foreign teachers were invited, and English became mandatory in schools.

Ministry of Education:

• The Ministry of Education promoted compulsory primary schooling for the masses and elite university education focused on engineering and scientific knowledge.

Bank of Japan:

• New banks were established to support trade and provide investment capital.
• The Bank of Japan was created in 1882, laying the groundwork for a private banking system with a lender of last resort.
• The Bank of Japan funded model steel and textile factories using tax revenues.

Transportation:

• The government built railroads and improved roads, enhancing national communication.
• Steam vessels and railways facilitated national connections.
• The government began constructing a steam railroad trunk line across the four major islands, encouraging private companies to participate.
• Deepwater harbors were created at Yokohama and Kobe to accommodate deep-hulled steamships.

Other Progress:

• Japan rapidly developed railways, telegraphs, postal services, and steamship facilities.
• Mines were developed, and new industries involving machinery and large-scale production were introduced.
• The currency was reformed, the banking sector developed, and international commerce increased significantly.
• Restrictions on commerce, such as guilds and internal tariffs, were removed.
• Land reform encouraged individual ownership and boosted production.
• Social reform allowed entrepreneurs to emerge from all social ranks.

Balanced Growth:

• Growth at the end of the 19th century was balanced, with traditional and modern technology sectors growing at similar rates.
• Labor, especially young girls from farming households, moved between rural and urban areas, with wages being roughly equal in industrial and agricultural work.
• By the 1890s, Japan had transformed from a backward feudal state to a modern industrial nation.
• Despite being engaged in an industrial revolution, Japan was still behind the West before World War I, relying on Western imports and global economic conditions.
• Successful exports required inexpensive labor, leading to repression of labor organization efforts.

Japan’s Industrial Growth During World Wars

Japan experienced rapid growth and structural change during its two periods of economic development since 1868. In the first period, the economy initially grew moderately and relied heavily on traditional agriculture to finance modern industrial infrastructure. By the time the Russo-Japanese War began in 1904, 65% of employment and 38% of the gross domestic product (GDP) was still based on agriculture, although modern industry had begun to expand significantly.

During World War I and the 1920s:

• During World War I, Japan took advantage of the absence of war-torn European competitors in the global market to advance its economy, achieving a trade surplus for the first time.
• By the late 1920s, manufacturing and mining accounted for 23% of GDP, surpassing agriculture, which contributed 21%. Transportation and communications had developed to support heavy industrial growth.

In the 1930s:

• Japan’s economy during the 1930s was less affected by the Great Depression compared to other industrialized nations, experiencing a rapid expansion rate of 5% of GDP per year.
• Manufacturing and mining accounted for over 30% of GDP, more than double the contribution of agriculture.
• Most industrial growth during this period was geared towards expanding military power. Before World War II, Japan established an extensive empire that included Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria, and parts of northern China.
• This sphere of influence was seen by the Japanese as a political and economic necessity to prevent foreign states from blocking access to raw materials and crucial sea-lanes. Despite having few natural and mining resources, Japan imported large amounts of coal from Korea, Manchukuo, and occupied regions of China.
• A large military force was deemed essential for the defense of this empire.

During World War II:

• Beginning in 1937 with significant land seizures in China and escalating after 1941 with annexations and invasions across Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Japan sought to acquire and develop critical natural resources to ensure economic independence.
• Natural resources seized and developed included coal in China, sugarcane in the Philippines, petroleum from the Dutch East Indies and Burma, and tin and bauxite from the Dutch East Indies and Malaya.
• During the early stages of expansion, the Japanese economy experienced significant growth. Steel production increased from 6.4 million tonnes to 8.8 million tonnes, and by 1941, Japanese aircraft industries had the capacity to manufacture 10,000 aircraft per year.
• This economic expansion largely benefited the “zaibatsu,” large industrial conglomerates.

However, over the course of the Pacific War, the economies of Japan and its occupied territories suffered severely. Inflation was rampant, and Japanese heavy industry, focused almost entirely on military production, could not meet the commercial needs of Japan, which had previously relied on trade with Western countries for manufactured goods. Local industries were unable to produce at sufficient levels to prevent severe shortages. Additionally, maritime trade, crucial for the Empire, was significantly curtailed due to damage to the Japanese merchant fleet during the war.

By the end of the war, what remained of the Japanese Empire was plagued by shortages, inflation, and currency devaluation. Transportation became nearly impossible, and industrial production in Japan’s devastated cities came to a standstill. The destruction caused by the war ultimately brought the Japanese economy to a virtual halt.

Effects of Japanese Industrial Revolution

Social and Cultural Effects of Industrialization:

• Industrialization was accompanied by a significant population increase, providing cheap labor but straining resources and social stability.
• In the cultural realm, the government established a universal education system emphasizing science, technology, and loyalty to the nation. This scientific approach reinforced the earlier secular orientation of elite culture.
• Western influences in clothing, personal care, the calendar, and the metric system were adopted, although Christianity made few converts.
• Family dynamics changed as the birth rate declined due to population pressure and the reduced economic utility of children in factory labor. High divorce rates reflected family instability.
• The traditional view of women’s inferiority in the household persisted, and formal manners and dietary customs were maintained. Shintoism, Japan's ancient indigenous religion, gained new adherents.

International Impact of Industrialization:

• The shifts in Japan's economic power influenced its foreign policy. By the 1890s, Japan emerged as an imperialist nation, which fostered nationalist sentiment among its people.
• Japan's demand for raw materials propelled territorial expansion, leading to conflicts with China over Korea from 1894 to 1895. Japan's swift victory marked its emergence as a new Asian power.
• A 1902 alliance with Britain positioned Japan as an equal partner in the global diplomatic arena.
• Confrontation with Russia culminated in the 1904 war, resulting in another Japanese victory and the annexation of Korea in 1910.
• Japan's rise altered the global diplomatic landscape by the early twentieth century. While not yet a major world power, Western nations began to perceive the "Yellow Peril" as they witnessed Japan's growing strength.

The Strain of Modernization:

• Japan's success came with challenges, including poor living conditions in overcrowded cities and generational conflicts over Westernization.
• The emergence of political parties led to tensions with the emperor and his advisors, resulting in frequent elections and political assassinations.
• Intellectuals expressed concerns about the loss of national identity amid rapid change and the lack of economic opportunities for the expanding educated class. To address this discontent, officials promoted loyalty to the emperor as a unifying national identity.
• Japanese nationalism, rooted in traditions of superiority, cohesion, deference to rulers, and the tensions arising from modernization, played a crucial role in preventing the revolutions seen in other industrializing nations. Japan's achievements during this period were unmatched by any other nation outside the West.