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Russia Suspends New START

Context

• President Vladimir Putin announced that Russia is suspending its participation in the New START treaty, the only remaining nuclear arms control treaty between the United States and Russia.

What’s in today’s article?

• New START Treaty – Background (START I), about, compliance, working etc.
• News Summary

New START Treaty: Background

• The name START comes from the original “Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty”, known as START-I.
  • START-I was signed between the US and the erstwhile USSR in 1991, and came into force in 1994.
• START-I capped the numbers of nuclear warheads and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that each side could deploy at 6,000 and 1,600 respectively.
• START-I lapsed in 2009 and was replaced first by the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT, also known as the Treaty of Moscow), and then by the New START treaty.

What is the New START?

• New START Treaty is officially known as - “Treaty between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms”.
  • It was signed by then-President Barack Obama and then-Russian president Dmitry Medvedev in 2010.
• The treaty entered into force in February 2011, and placed new verifiable limits on intercontinental-range nuclear weapons.
• Under the treaty, the United States and Russia were given seven years to scale back their stockpiles of strategic offensive arms — broadly, nuclear warheads deployed by missiles, planes or submarines that can travel long distances.
• After February 2018, both the countries had to maintain the stockpiles of these arms within the limits fixed by the treaty, for the period the treaty remained in force.
• The US and Russia Federation subsequently agreed to extend the treaty through February 4, 2026.

How is compliance with the treaty ensured?

• Detailed procedures for the implementation and verification of the central limits, and all treaty obligations, are part of the treaty terms.
• The treaty provides for 18 on-site inspections per year for US and Russian inspection teams.

Have the United States and Russia complied with it?

• Both countries met the limits spelled out in the treaty by February 2018 and appear to have remained at or below them since then.
• However, regular inspections mandated by the agreement have not been held for the past three years — initially because of the coronavirus pandemic, and later because relations soured after Russia invaded Ukraine.

News Summary: Russia suspends New START Treaty

• Russian President Vladimir Putin declared that Moscow was suspending its participation in the New START treaty.
• Speaking in his state-of-the-nation address, Mr. Putin also said that Russia should stand ready to resume nuclear weapons tests if the U.S. does so.
  • If this happens, it would end a global ban on nuclear weapons tests in place since Cold War times.
• Explaining his decision to suspend Russia’s obligations under the treaty, Putin accused the U.S. and its NATO allies of openly declaring the goal of Russia’s defeat in Ukraine.

What could Putin’s announcement mean?

• As per Russian President, the country is not withdrawing from the treaty entirely. But Moscow will not allow NATO countries to inspect its nuclear arsenal.
• Analysts believe it is entirely symbolic since Russia had not been permitting inspections anyway.
• As per them, the move appears to be aimed at pressuring President Biden and allies.

Why security experts all over the world are worried with this announcement?

• Deterioration of nuclear disarmament efforts
  • This announcement has raised alarm about the deterioration of nuclear disarmament efforts.
  • This is at a time when tensions between the United States and Russia have reached a recent peak after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine last year.
• Signals that nuclear weapons are an effective form of diplomatic leverage
  • The current announcement might signal to other countries that nuclear weapons are an effective form of diplomatic leverage.
  • This largely depends on the posture taken by the USA after this announcement.
    • If the United States makes concessions, other countries might get the signal that nuclear weapons hold keys in such cases.

One Year of Russia-Ukraine Conflict

Context

February 24 marks one year since Russia began its invasion of Ukraine.

What is the history of conflict between Ukraine and Russia?

• Annexation of Crimea - Ukraine was one of the republics within the USSR during the cold war days, and has remained a strong ally of Russia till 2013.
• While it was planning to sign an association agreement with the European Union in 2013, Russia subsequently annexed “Crimea” (Russian speaking province in Ukraine).
• Naval skirmish over the Sea of Azov - After Crimea’s annexation in 2014, Russia gained control over both sides of the Kerch strait.
• Later, the Ukrainian vessels attempt to travel from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov was denied by the Russian coast guard.
• Russian backed rebels - Russia has been criticised for its involvement in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions in eastern Ukraine.
• There, Russian-backed separatists have been fighting with Ukrainian troops.
• Other conflict - Belarus, a Russian ally was blamed for the migration crisis in the EU’s Polish border.

What are the consequences of the war?

Socio-economic concerns

• Millions of people fleeing – According to the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR), the war has led to the second-largest displacement crisis in the world.
• Poverty – 40% of the Ukraine’s population is now dependent on humanitarian aid.
• Recession - According to the World Bank, the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) shrank by 35% in 2022.
• Billions for Ukrainian military – Since the beginning of the invasion, Ukraine has received billions in military, humanitarian, and financial aid, the US tops the list of donor countries.
• The EU and its member states have mobilized over €50 billion, with Germany being one of the largest arms suppliers to Ukraine.
• In addition, NATO has increased its military presence on its eastern flank.
• Bucha Massacre – Ukrainian President accused Russian troops of committing the most terrible war crimes since World War II in Bucha, Ukraine.
• Resilience in Russia – The situation in Russia is less critical than expected, as the economy has not suffered as much in comparison.
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) forecasts minimal growth of 0.3% this year.

Environmental Concerns

• Damages - The conflict has seen many damages with incidents involving nuclear power plants, energy infrastructure, mines and industrial sites.
• Emissions - Emission from the conflict was estimated to be around 33 million (mn) tonnes of CO2 and 23 mn tonnes of CO2 from fires.
• To know more about Environmental concerns, Click Here

What is the position of India?

• The UN and its bodies have voted on resolutions pertaining to the Russia-Ukraine war at least 39 times in the last year.
• India, which has maintained a diplomatic balancing act and has walked the tightrope between US-led West and Russia, has abstained on most occasions.
• India’s voting shows a nuanced and calibrated stance adopted by Delhi in the past one year.
• India stated it is deeply disturbed by the war, but it did not name Russia at all.
• India called for cessation of violence and hostilities and flagged its concern about Indian nationals.
• India called for respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, and respect for UN charter and international law.
• India advocated diplomacy and advocated dialogue and diplomacy will be the path forward.

What is the way forward?

• With a year of geopolitical turmoil due to the Russia-Ukraine crisis, India as the chair of G-20, will face the challenge of negotiating a declaration while balancing between Russia and the West.
• One of the ways it will look to address the Russia-Ukraine war will be to talk about the adverse impact of the war in terms of energy and food security.
• The framing of the argument is expected to be on the humanitarian concerns of the war.

India-Germany Cooperation on Innovation

Context

India and Germany agreed on a vision statement to enhance cooperation on innovation and technology during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s meeting with visiting German Chancellor Olaf Scholz.

Details

Highlights:

• The statement said the two countries share a long history of cooperation in science and technology, research and innovation, institutionalised under the framework of the Inter-Governmental Agreement on ‘Cooperation in Scientific Research and Technological Development’, signed in May 1974.
• The leaders discussed progress on Green and Sustainable Development Partnership (GSDP), which India and Germany had launched during Modi’s visit to Berlin for the 6th IGC.
• The GSDP is an umbrella partnership that provides political guidance and steer to robust ties in climate action and SDGs.
• Under this, Germany will also place €10 billion in new and additional commitments under their development cooperation portfolio in India.
• India and Germany also agreed to cooperate on Green Hydrogen.
• The Indo-German Green Hydrogen Task Force was constituted in September 2022 and an Action Plan is close to finalisation.
• On “Triangular Development Cooperation”, during the sixth IGC, India and Germany agreed to work on development projects in third countries. The four projects, announced in May 2022, are now in different stages of implementation:
• Cameroon:Potato Seed Production through Rooted Apical Cuttings (RAC) Technology.
• Malawi:Agri Business Incubator Models for Women in Agriculture & Food Systems
• Ghana:Developing Bamboo-Based Enterprises for Sustainable Livelihood and Income Generation in Ghana
• Peru:Development of a geospatial portal prototype for planning, monitoring, and evaluation of the Ministry of Development and Social Inclusion of Peru (MIDIS) interventions and social programs.
• Germany has come on board the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI).
• The two sides continued discussion on the proposed deal for Germany to build jointly with India six conventional submarines for the Indian Navy. “
• The Modi-Scholz meeting resulted in two intergovernmental documents – India-Germany Vision to Enhance Cooperation in Innovation and Technology and a Letter of Intent between Department of Science and Technology of the Government of India and the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems of Germany for Cooperation in Green Hydrogen and Clean Energy Technologies.

Background of relations

Relations over the years:

• Bilateral relations between India and Germany are founded on common democratic principles and are marked by a high degree of trust and mutual respect.
• India was amongst the first countries to establish diplomatic ties with the Federal Republic of Germany after the Second World War.
• Relations grew significantly following the end of the Cold War and the reunification of Germany.
• In the last decade, both economic and political interaction between India and Germany has increased significantly.
• Today, Germany is amongst India’s most important partners both bilaterally and in the global context.
• India and Germany have a “Strategic Partnership” since 2001

High-level consultations:

• Relationship has been further strengthened with the Inter-Governmental Consultations (IGC) at the level of Head of Governments which allows for a comprehensive review of Cooperation and identification of new areas of engagement.
• India is amongst a select group of countries with which Germany has such a high-level Consultations.
• Regular visits take place from both sides, including at the highest level
• There is an Indo-German Parliamentary Friendship Group, in German Bundestag since 1971.
• Some States and Cities of India and Germany have entered into twinning arrangements. Karnataka and Bavaria have Sister State arrangement since 2007. Mumbai and Stuttgart are sister cities since 1968. In January 2015, Maharashtra and Baden-Wurttemberg signed an MoU to establish a Sister State relationship.

Institutional Cooperation Arrangements:

Several institutionalized arrangements exist between India and Germany to discuss bilateral and global issues of interest namely, Foreign Office Consultations, High Defence Committee, Indo-German Energy Forum, Indo-German Environment Forum, S&T Committee, and Joint Working Groups in various fields, including skill development, automotive, agriculture, coal, tourism, water and waste management.

Defence Cooperation:

• India-Germany Defence Cooperation Agreement (2006) provides a framework for bilateral defence cooperation.
• To further enhance the Defence Industry and defence cooperation between Germany and India, an Arrangement on Implementation of the Agreement concerning Bilateral Defence Cooperation was signed in 2019

Economic & Commercial Relations:

• Germany is India's largest trading partner in Europe.
• Bilateral trade grew from Euro 15.96 billion to Euro 20.41 bn in 2018.
• Germany is the 7th largest foreign direct investor in India since April 2000.
• A Fast-Track System for German companies has been operating in Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) since March 2016

Science & Technology:

• Indo-German Science & Technology cooperation started with the signing of the Intergovernmental S&T Cooperation Agreement in 1971 and 1974.
• There are more than 150 joint S&T research projects and 70 direct partnerships between Universities of both countries.

Development Cooperation:

• Germany has been an important development cooperation partner for several decades.
• Total bilateral Technical and Financial Cooperation since it began in 1958, amounts to approx. Euro 17 billion.
• Energy, sustainable economic development and environment & management of natural resources are priority areas.
• Financial assistance from Germany is mainly as soft loan, composite loans or grants routed through KfW, German Government’s Development Bank.

Indians in Germany:

• There are about 1.7 lakh Indians and people of Indian origin in Germany.
• The Indian diaspora mainly comprises of professionals, technocrats, businessmen/traders and nurses.

Germany:

• Germanyis formally known as the Federal Republic of Germany.
• It is located in Central Europe.
• It is the 2nd most populous country in Europe after Russia.
• It is the most populous country in the European Union.
• Germany is located between the Baltic and North Sea in the north.
• Germany shares borders with;
  • The Alps in the South.
  • Denmark in the north.
  • Poland and the Czech Republic in the east.
  • Austria and Switzerland in the south.
  • France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands in the west.
• It is the 7th largest country in Europe.
• Most people follow Christianity.
• The official language is German.
• The capital is Berlin; it is also the largest city.
• Germany has the largest economy in Europe.
• It is the world's 4th-largest economy by nominal GDP and the 5th-largest by Purchasing power parities (PPPs).
• It is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer of goods.
• It is categorised as a developed country, it ranks very high on the Human Development Index.
• Areas of Rhine, Danube and Elbe are rich in natural resourcesincluding iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, etc.

Japan’s Official Development Assistance

Context

Recently, Japan has approved Official Development Assistance (ODA) to India, for a few Key projects.

• India and Japan have had a long and fruitful history of bilateral development cooperation since 1958. In the last few years, the economic cooperation between India and Japan has steadily progressed.

What are the Key Projects under ODA?

• Patna Metro Rail Construction Project:
  • Rs. 5,509 crores have been approved for Patna Metro Rail Construction Project (I).
  • It aims to cope with the increase of traffic demand in Patna by constructing the new metro corridor, thereby contributing to improvement of the urban environment and development of the economy as well as mitigation of Climate Change.
• Forest and Biodiversity Conservation in West Bengal:
  • Rs. 520 crores approx. have been approved for the Project for Forest and Biodiversity Conservation for Climate Change Response in West Bengal.
  • It aims to mitigate and adapt to climate change, conserve and restore ecosystems by ecosystem-based climate change measures, biodiversity conservation and restoration, thereby contributing to sustainable socio-economic development in the State.
• Rajasthan Water Sector Livelihood Improvement Project:
  • Rs. 1,055.53 crores have been approved for Rajasthan Water Sector Livelihood Improvement Project (II).
  • It aims to improve livelihoods of farmers as well as promote gender mainstreaming in agriculture and irrigation sector in the State, by improving water use efficiency and agriculture productivity, through improvement of existing irrigation facilities and agriculture support services.

What are the Other ODAs to India from Japan?

• Delhi Metro is one of the most successful examples of Japanese cooperation through the utilization of ODA.
• India’s Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) project is funded by a soft loan provided by Japan International Cooperation Agency under Special terms for economic partnership (STEP).
• Besides, Japan and India had committed to build High-Speed Railways in India by introducing Japan’s Shinkansen System.
• India Japan Nuclear Deal 2016 will help India build the six nuclear reactors in southern India, increasing nuclear energy capacity ten-fold by 2032.

China, India andthe Promise of the Power

Context

• China and India have far more common interests than differences.

China and India coming together

• Representatives of developing countries:
  • As two neighbouring and ancient civilisations, with a combined population of 2.8 billion, China and India are representatives of developing countries and emerging economies. 
• Crucial period of modernisation for both:
  • India and China are both in the process of national rejuvenation and a crucial period of modernisation where challenges need to be overcome and problems need to be solved. 
• China’s path of modernization:
  • China is advancing modernisation on all fronts. Here, the path to modernisation is based on China’s practices with a focus on high-quality development. 
    • It means the modernisation of a huge population, where there is 
      • Common prosperity for all, 
      • Material and cultural-ethical advancement, 
      • Harmony between humanity and nature, and 
      • Peaceful development. 
• Significance:
  • In his recent meeting with India’s External Affairs Minister & Chinese Foreign Minister stated that the development and revitalisation of China and India embody a boost to the force of developing countries; it is one that will change the destiny of a third of the world’s population and having bearing on the future of Asia and beyond. 
    • This will spell new opportunities to all countries in the world, especially neighbouring countries.
  • This echoes what India’s External Affairs Minister had expressed in 2022, that the Asian Century will happen when China and India come together.

China’s focus areas

• Steady growth:
  • In 2022, China’s economy grew by 3% with a total of 12.06 million urban jobs added. China’s GDP registered an annual growth rate of 5.2% over the past five years and an annual growth of 6.2% over the past decade. China’s economic strength is steadily reaching new heights.
• People’s well-being: 
  • As a result of continued efforts of the past eight years, China has historically resolved absolute poverty, with the alleviation of close to 100 million rural residents from poverty. 
  • Over 70% of the government’s expenditure went toward ensuring people’s well-being. Basic old age insurance covers 1.05 billion people, an increase of 140 million. 
  • Living standards continue to witness new improvements.
• Opening up:
  • In 2022, China’s total volume of trade in goods exceeded 40 trillion yuan, registering an annual growth rate of 8.6%. 
  • China’s actual use of foreign capital was up by 8% and the country remained one of the top destinations for foreign investors. 
  • The overall tariff level continues to fall, from 9.8% to 7.4%. China’s doors to the outside world are opening even wider.
• Win-win cooperation:
  • In the period 2013-2021, China’s contribution to global economic growth averaged 38.6%, higher than that of G7 countries combined (25.7%). 
  • Ever since the Chinese President, Xi Jinping, proposed the Global Development Initiative (GDI) in a speech at the United Nations General Assembly in 2021, more than 100 countries have expressed their support and over 60 countries have joined the Group of Friends of the GDI.

China-India trade

• Significance:
  • China and India are important trading partners, with bilateral trade volume reaching $135.984 billion in 2022. 
  • The Chinese market is open to India and the Investments by Chinese enterprises have created jobs for the Indian people and contributed to India’s economic development.
• Challenges:
  • Tariffs and non-tariff steps:
    • India is considering a number of tariffs and non-tariff steps to cut imports of non-essential consumer and electronic goods, including from China, as trade imbalances concern policymakers.
  •  Limited participation for industries:
    • A section of the industry has opined that some of the conditions like requirements of local experience, are limiting their participation in the Chinese procurement process.
  • China’s dumping practices:
    • India’s domestic industry has suffered material injury due to dumping. Against this, India has imposed antidumping duties on a few Chinese products.
  • Geopolitical constraints:
    • India is also suspicious about the strong strategic bilateral relations between China and Pakistan. The border dispute between the two countries is also causing hindrances. 

Indian Government’s steps to reduce the trade deficit & way ahead

• Buyers – Sellers meets:
  • The Government of India has taken various measures to extend support to exporters by facilitating Buyers – Sellers meets between potential Chinese importers and Indian exporters to increase exports of sugar, oil meals, Indian rice and grapes. 
• Promoting domestic manufacturing:
  • Government has been implementing various schemes and programmes to help the domestic industries compete effectively with imports. 
  • To promote the domestic manufacturing, schemes like ‘Make in India, ‘Digital India’, Software Technology Parks, Electronics Hardware Technology Park Scheme/ Export Oriented Unit Scheme and Special Economic Zone Scheme provide support for promoting domestic manufacturing in the country.
• The Foreign Trade Policy:
  • The Foreign Trade Policy 2015-20 has mechanisms such as Merchandise Exports from India Scheme, Advance Authorisation Scheme, Export Promotion Capital Goods Scheme, Interest Equalization Scheme to provide an enabling framework for businesses to make their exports competitive.  
  • Active interventions, in terms of policy and procedural changes, are regularly undertaken by the Government so that businesses can cope with the dynamic international trade scenario.

Trade Deficit

• About: 
  • A trade deficit occurs when a country’s imports exceed its exports during a given time period. 
  • It is also referred to as a negative balance of trade (BOT).
• Advantages of Trade Deficits:
  • It allows a country to consume more than it produces. In the short run, trade deficits can help nations to avoid shortages of goods and other economic problems.
  • It creates downward pressure on a country’s currency under a floating exchange rate regime. Domestic currency depreciation also makes the country’s exports less expensive and more competitive in foreign markets.
  • Trade deficits can also occur because a country is a highly desirable destination for foreign investment.
• Disadvantages of Trade Deficits:
  • It can facilitate a sort of economic colonization. 
    • If a country continually runs trade deficits, citizens of other countries acquire funds to buy up capital in that nation. 
    • That can mean making new investments that increase productivity and create jobs. 
    • However, it may also involve merely buying up existing businesses, natural resources, and other assets. 
    • If this buying continues, foreign investors will eventually own nearly everything in the country.
  • Trade deficits are generally much more dangerous with fixed exchange rates. 
    • Under a fixed exchange rate regime, currency devaluation is impossible, trade deficits are more likely to continue, and unemployment may increase significantly. 

India Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership

Context

India and Australia have reached a major milestone in working towards investment in critical minerals projects to develop supply chains between the two countries.

Details

• The Union Minister for Coal, Mines and Parliamentary Affairs and Minister for Resources and Northern Australia held bilateral talks and announced the Partnership has identified five target projects (two lithium and three cobalt) on which to undertake detailed due diligence
• Ministers from the two countries have also agreed to deepen cooperation and extend their existing commitments to the India- Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership.
• Investments under the Partnership will seek to build new supply chains underpinned by critical minerals processed in Australia, that will help India’s plans to lower emissions from its electricity network and become a global manufacturing hub, including for electric vehicles.
• Australia produces almost half of the world’s lithium, is the second-largest producer of cobalt and the fourth-largest producer of rare earths.
• Australia confirmed that it would “commit A$5.8 million to the three-year India-Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership”.

What are critical minerals?

• Critical minerals are elements that are the building blocks of essential modern-day technologies, and are at risk of supply chain disruptions.
• These minerals are now used everywhere from making mobile phones, computers to batteries, electric vehicles and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines.
• Based on their individual needs and strategic considerations, different countries create their own lists.
• However, such lists mostly include graphite, lithium and cobalt, which are used for making EV batteries; rare earths that are used for making magnets and silicon which is a key mineral for making computer chips and solar panels.
• Aerospace, communications and defence industries also rely on several such minerals as they are used in manufacturing fighter jets, drones, radio sets and other critical equipment.

Why is this resource critical?

• As countries around the world scale up their transition towards clean energy and digital economy, these critical resources are key to the ecosystem that fuels this change.
• Any supply shock can severely imperil the economy and strategic autonomy of a country over-dependent on others to procure critical minerals.
• But these supply risks exist due to rare availability, growing demand and complex processing value chain. Many times the complex supply chain can be disrupted by hostile regimes, or due to politically unstable regions.
• As the world transitions to a clean energy economy, global demand for these critical minerals is set to skyrocket by 400-600 per cent over the next several decades, and, for minerals such as lithium and graphite used in electric vehicle (EV) batteries, demand will increase by even more — as much as 4,000 per cent.
• They are critical as the world is fast shifting from a fossil fuel-intensive to a mineral-intensive energy system.

What are countries around the world doing about it?

• In 2021, the US ordered a review of vulnerabilities in its critical minerals supply chains and found that an over-reliance on “foreign sources and adversarial nations for critical minerals and materials posed national and economic security threats”.
• Post the supply chain assessment, it has shifted its focus on expanding domestic mining, production, processing, and recycling of critical minerals and materials.
• India has set up KABIL or the Khanij Bidesh India Limited, a joint venture of three public sector companies, to “ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to the Indian domestic market”.
  • Australia’s Critical Minerals Facilitation Office (CMFO) and KABIL had recently signed an MoU aimed at ensuring reliable supply of critical minerals to India.
• The UK unveiled its new Critical Minerals Intelligence Centre to study the future demand for and supply of these minerals. It also said that the country’s critical mineral strategy will be unveiled later this year.
• US, Canada and Australia had launched an interactive map of critical mineral deposits with an aim to help governments to identify options to diversify their critical minerals sources.

About Cobalt

Appearance

A lustrous, silvery-blue metal. It is magnetic.

Uses

• Cobalt, like iron, can be magnetised and so is used to make magnets. It is alloyed with aluminium and nickel to make particularly powerful magnets.
• Other alloys of cobalt are used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators, where high-temperature strength is important.
• Cobalt metal is sometimes used in electroplating because of its attractive appearance, hardness and resistance to corrosion.
• Cobalt salts have been used for centuries to produce brilliant blue colours in paint, porcelain, glass, pottery and enamels.
• Radioactive cobalt-60 is used to treat cancer and, in some countries, to irradiate food to preserve it.

Biological role

• Cobalt is an essential trace element, and forms part of the active site of vitamin B12. The amount we need is very small, and the body contains only about 1 milligram. Cobalt salts can be given to certain animals in small doses to correct mineral deficiencies. In large doses cobalt is carcinogenic.
• Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope. It is an important source of gamma-rays. It is widely used in cancer treatment, as a tracer and for radiotherapy.

Natural abundance

• Cobalt is found in the minerals cobaltite, skutterudite and erythrite. Important ore deposits are found in DR Congo, Canada, Australia, Zambia and Brazil. Most cobalt is formed as a by-product of nickel refining.
• A huge reserve of several transition metals (including cobalt) can be found in strange nodules on the floors of the deepest oceans.
• The nodules are manganese minerals that take millions of years to form, and together they contain many tonnes of cobalt.