Interwar Period: The Policy of Appeasement | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Policy of Appeasement

Appeasement was a strategy employed by Britain and later by France to prevent conflict with aggressive nations like Japan, Italy, and Germany by conceding to their demands, as long as those demands were not excessively unreasonable.

There were two phases of appeasement:
Phase 1: Mid-1920s to 1937:

• During this period, there was a general consensus that war should be avoided at all costs.
• Britain, and occasionally France, passively accepted various acts of aggression and violations of the Treaty of Versailles, including events in Manchuria, Abyssinia, German rearmament, and the reoccupation of the Rhineland.

Phase 2: Neville Chamberlain's Leadership (from May 1937):

• With Chamberlain as British Prime Minister, appeasement gained new momentum.
• He believed in a proactive approach, aiming to understand Hitler's demands and demonstrating that reasonable requests could be addressed through negotiation rather than military force.

The roots of appeasement can be traced back to British policies in the 1920s, such as the Dawes and Young Plans, which sought to placate the Germans. The Locarno Treaties also played a role, particularly their significant omission: Britain did not commit to guaranteeing Germany’s eastern borders, which even moderate German leaders like Chancellor Gustav Stresemann acknowledged needed revision.

• When Chamberlain, then British Foreign Minister, stated during the Locarno discussions that no British government would risk the life of a single soldier to defend the Polish Corridor, it gave the Germans the impression that Britain had abandoned Eastern Europe.
• Appeasement reached its peak at the Munich Agreement, where Britain and France, eager to avoid war with Germany, conceded the Sudetenland to Hitler. This decision initiated the disintegration of Czechoslovakia.
• Despite these significant concessions, appeasement ultimately proved unsuccessful.

Reasons for the Policy of Appeasement

At the time when appeasement was being practiced, there were several compelling reasons that seemed to support the policy, leading the appeasers to believe it was the right approach.

Economic Difficulties:

• Europe was still recovering from the economic aftermath of World War I and the Wall Street Crash. There was a belief that a strong and prosperous Germany could help rejuvenate the economies of other European nations.
• The 1930s were marked by a severe trade depression, and financial resources were scarce. With three million people unemployed, the government prioritized spending on social welfare over military expenditures.
• British Prime Minister Chamberlain favored increasing social welfare spending and was thus hesitant to boost military funding.
• Economic cooperation between Britain and Germany was seen as mutually beneficial. A recovering German economy was thought to contribute to stability and reduce internal strife within Germany.

Public Opinion:

• During the Rhineland crisis, British politician Lord Lothian expressed the sentiment that Germany was merely reoccupying its own territory, a view that resonated with many.
• Popular sentiment in Britain at the time held that Germany had been excessively punished by the Versailles Treaty. The reparations imposed on Germany had severely crippled its economy.
• Before the outbreak of war, many people admired Hitler for having seemingly rebuilt Germany into a strong and powerful nation after the devastation of World War I.
• A majority of the British public did not support a tougher stance against Hitler unless British interests or lives were directly threatened.
• Following the devastating bombing of Guernica in April 1937 during the Spanish Civil War, public support for non-intervention grew, as there were fears of another inevitable war.
• Many believed that Hitler’s demands to reclaim territories with German-speaking populations were justified.
• Closer ties between Germany and Austria were viewed as inevitable by some, with the belief that Austria generally welcomed the Anschluss (the union of Germany and Austria). Efforts to preserve Austria's independence were thought to be futile.
• The Anschluss was not widely regarded as a problem since it was seen as a consequence of the discredited Versailles Settlement.
• Minority opinions, such as those of anti-appeasers like Churchill, expressed serious concern about Hitler's expansionist agenda. Churchill viewed the Anschluss as a calculated program of aggression.
• Churchill believed that Hitler's aims were irrational and that no amount of appeasement would satisfy him. He warned that early action against Hitler could provoke aggression from Italy and Japan as well.
• British Communists and left-wing Labour Party members shared concerns about German militarization and aggression, calling for action against Hitler.

Pacifism:

• The Oxford University student debating society's vote against fighting for King and Country shocked the nation.
• A Conservative candidate advocating for increased defense spending was defeated by a Labour candidate perceived as anti-war.
• The Peace Ballot of 1934, conducted by the League of Nations Union, received 11.5 million replies, showing overwhelming support for collective security through the League of Nations.
• After the horrors of World War I and advancements in weaponry, there was widespread revulsion at the thought of another war, especially with the potential for massive civilian casualties due to long-distance bombers.
• The peace movement was gaining momentum in Britain and across Europe, with public sentiment strongly against another European war.

Concern over the Empire:

• A war in Europe involving Britain could jeopardize the security of its Empire.
• During the 1930s, Britain’s Empire faced threats from Japan and Italy, and internal issues in India, the Middle East, and Ireland demanded attention.
• In 1938, several countries within the British Empire, including Canada and South Africa, made it clear that they would not support Britain in a war against Germany over Czechoslovakia.

Lack of Reliable Allies:

• At the time of the Anschluss, Britain lacked reliable allies in the region around Austria. Italy, which had previously been a protector of Austria in 1934, was no longer in that position.
• There were doubts about France’s ability to be a dependable ally due to its political instability during the 1930s, marked by violent clashes between right and left-wing factions.
• During the 1937 Imperial Conference in London, member states of the British Empire, such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, made it clear that they would not participate in another war in Europe.
• The United States was following a policy of isolation and preferred to stay out of European affairs.
• The League of Nations, established after World War I to prevent future conflicts, had proven ineffective, as member states struggled to reach agreements and enforce decisions.

Military Weaknesses:

• The British Government was concerned about the weakness of its armed forces. Widespread disarmament in the 1920s had left Britain with no immediate troops available for a challenge.
• Military chiefs advised Prime Minister Chamberlain that Britain was not strong enough to fight a war against multiple countries simultaneously.
• At the time of the Anschluss, military leaders warned that confronting Hitler might encourage Italy and Japan to exploit Britain’s overstretched and under-resourced overseas commitments.
• Nazi propaganda convinced Britain and France that Germany’s military strength was far greater than it actually was.
• Even the British navy, the strongest in the world after the American navy, would have struggled to defend Britain’s vast Empire while also protecting merchant shipping in a war against Germany, Japan, and Italy at the same time.
• Chamberlain accelerated British rearmament to ensure that Britain would be treated with respect. He believed that the longer appeasement continued, the stronger Britain would become, deterring aggression in the process.

Fear of the Spread of Communism:

• Many British politicians viewed Communism as a greater threat than Nazi Germany. The brutal show trials in Stalin’s Soviet Union during the 1930s reinforced this perception.
• A common sentiment at the time was that it was better to deal with Hitler than to face Communist expansion.
• Some believed that Hitler’s Germany could act as a buffer against the spread of Communism to the west. There was also a degree of admiration for Hitler’s drive and accomplishments.

Beliefs of Chamberlain:

• Chamberlain perceived Hitler as making extreme statements for publicity and believed he was fundamentally a reasonable man who preferred negotiation to conflict.
• With the League of Nations appearing ineffective, Chamberlain thought that personal contact between leaders was the best way to resolve disputes. He aimed to control and civilize Hitler and Mussolini through direct engagement, hoping to enforce respect for international law.
• Several prominent British politicians were impressed by Hitler. Former Prime Minister Lloyd George, after meeting Hitler in 1936, described him as a man of supreme quality. Labour MP George Lansbury, a pacifist, believed in 1937 that Hitler would not go to war unless provoked.

Role of Appeasement in International Affairs in the 1930s

• Appeasement significantly influenced the course of international relations during the 1930s. While it might have been effective with certain German governments in the past, it proved to be ineffective in dealing with Adolf Hitler.
• Many historians argue that appeasement led Hitler to perceive Britain and France as complacent and weak. This misjudgment emboldened him to risk an invasion of Poland, ultimately sparking the Second World War.
• It is crucial to note that appeasement was primarily a British policy, and the French did not always share the same perspective.

French Perspective on Appeasement:

• Although the French Prime Minister initially supported a conciliatory approach, there were limits to French tolerance. For instance, in 1931, the French drew the line at the proposed Austro-German customs union.
• Louis Barthou, the French foreign minister in 1934, advocated for a firm stance against Hitler. He sought to strengthen an anti-German coalition that included Italy and the Soviet Union.
• Barthou played a key role in advocating for Russia's entry into the League of Nations in September 1934.
• He communicated to the British that France was unwilling to legitimize German rearmament, which was in violation of the Versailles Treaties.
• Regrettably, Barthou was assassinated in October 1934.

Shift in French Policy:

• After Barthou's assassination, his successor, Pierre Laval, signed a weak alliance with Russia in May 1935. This agreement lacked provisions for military cooperation, as Laval was distrustful of the communists.
• The French political landscape became deeply divided between left and right factions. This division hindered the possibility of a decisive foreign policy, with the right admiring Hitler and complicating France's response to German aggression.

Examples of Appeasement

German Rearmament:

• No actions were taken to stop the clear rearmament of Germany.
• After visiting Hitler in January 1935, Lord Lothian, a Liberal, expressed his belief that Hitler did not want war but rather sought a strong army to address the threat from Russia.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement:

• This agreement allowed for German naval rearmament and was signed without consulting France and Italy.
• It weakened the Stresa Front and diminished French confidence in Britain.

Italian Invasion of Abyssinia:

• British response to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia was tepid.

German Remilitarization of the Rhineland:

• Despite being troubled by Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland in March 1936, the French did not mobilize their troops.
• The French were internally divided and overly cautious, receiving no support from Britain, which was swayed by Hitler's offer of a 25-year peace treaty.
• Lord Lothian downplayed the event, suggesting that German troops were merely entering their own "back garden."

Spanish Civil War:

• Neither Britain nor France intervened in the Spanish Civil War, while Germany and Italy provided crucial support to Franco.
• Britain attempted to persuade Mussolini to withdraw his troops by officially recognizing Italian control over Abyssinia in April 1938, but Mussolini did not honor this agreement.

Anschluss:

• Despite strong protests from Britain and France regarding the Anschluss between Germany and Austria in March 1938, many in Britain viewed it as the natural unification of two German groups.
• Britain's lack of decisive action encouraged Hitler to make further demands on Czechoslovakia, leading to Chamberlain's most significant act of appeasement and Hitler's major triumph at Munich.