Issues of integration and autonomy | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Historical Perspective-Isolation

• Cultural Coexistence and Diversity:
  • India has historically been characterized by the coexistence of diverse cultural patterns and ways of life.
  • Unlike many other parts of the world, the introduction of new cultures and lifestyles did not necessarily result in the disappearance of earlier, less advanced ethnic groups in India.
• Factors Influencing Coexistence:
  • The coexistence of old and new cultures in India was partly due to the vast size of the subcontinent and limited communication between regions.
  • Importantly, Indian ideology embraced the idea that a variety of cultural forms were natural and immutable, discouraging the assimilation of different cultures into a single dominant pattern.
• Formation of Castes:
  • In cases where economic necessity or the encroachment of advanced communities led to interactions between tribes and Hindus, cultural distinctions blurred.
  • Some tribes gradually became incorporated into hierarchically ranked caste systems, often starting at the lowest rungs.
• Examples of Tribes to Castes:
  • Certain untouchable castes in South India, like the Cherumans and the Panyers of Kerala, were once independent tribes and still exhibit physical similarities to neighboring tribal groups.
  • However, exceptions exist, such as the Meitheis of Assam, who achieved a status comparable to Kshatriyas.
• Resistance to Assimilation:
  • Tribes that resisted assimilation into Hindu society often fared better than assimilated groups. They were not treated as untouchables, even if they engaged in practices like consuming beef.
  • The Raj Gond princes, for example, maintained their distinct social and cultural identity and were not pressured to conform to Hindu norms.
• Tribal Isolation:
  • This respect for tribal ways of life persisted as long as interactions between tribes and Hindu populations were limited.
  • In open plains, tribal people were seen as part of the natural landscape, and coexistence was relatively frictionless because there was no population pressure, and advanced communities did not attempt to impose their values on the tribal population.
• Impact of British Rule:
  • Under British rule, a centralized administration extended its control over areas that were previously autonomous for many aboriginal tribes.
  • While British administrators did not intend to interfere with tribal customs, the establishment of law and order exposed tribes to the pressure of more advanced populations.
  • Traders, money-lenders, and settlers could establish themselves under British protection, leading to the alienation of tribal land.
• Resistance and Rebellions:
  • Some tribes resisted land alienation, either retreating into hills and marginal lands or accepting a tenant or laborer status on their ancestral land.
  • Rebellions, such as the Santhal Rebellion of 1855, were often reactions to exploitation and oppression by Hindu landlords and money-lenders, rather than aimed at the British administration.
• Impact of Protective Legislation:
  • Land alienation laws had a limited palliative effect, with encroachment on tribal land continuing even in the presence of protective legislation.

Assimilation of Tribals

• Question of Values:
  • The acceptance or rejection of the necessity for assimilating tribal communities into Hindu society ultimately depends on one's values and beliefs.
• Historical Tolerance:
  • Historically, Hindu society was relatively tolerant of groups that did not conform to the standards set by the higher castes.
  • While these groups might not have had equal ritual status, there were no concerted efforts to force them to abandon their chosen way of life.
• Changing Attitudes:
  • In recent years, there has been a shift in attitude, possibly influenced by Western ideas of universal values. This has led to a decreased tolerance for cultural and social differences.
• Multicultural India:
  • India is a country characterized by its diversity, including multiple languages, races, and cultures.
  • Just as Muslims, Christians, and Parsis are allowed to follow their traditional lifestyles, it is argued that the unique cultures and social orders of tribal communities should also be respected.
• Natural Assimilation:
  • Assimilation tends to happen automatically and inevitably when small tribal groups find themselves surrounded by numerically stronger Hindu populations.
• Resistance to Assimilation:
  • Along India's northern and northeastern frontiers, there are robust tribal populations that actively resist assimilation and inclusion within the Hindu caste system.
  • These tribes maintain their distinct cultural identities and social structures, even when living in close proximity to Hindu communities.

Democratic Decentralization and Tribals

• Introduction of Democratic Decentralization and Tribal Relations:
  • The transition from traditional Indian government paternalism to democratic decentralization has significantly affected tribal-majority community relations.
  • Local elections have sparked tribal interest as they realized they could choose their representatives.
• Government Policy on Tribal Integration:
  • The Indian government aims to integrate tribes into the mainstream while protecting their distinct way of life and ensuring equal rights.
  • Special safeguards include education, employment, economic protection, abolition of bonded labor, and protection from exploitation.
• Impact of Forced Incorporation into the Mainstream:
  • The forced incorporation of tribal communities into the mainstream has influenced their culture, society, and economy.
  • Many tribal identities now revolve around resistance to non-tribal influences.
• Challenges in Tribal Areas:
  • Certain northeastern states have faced limitations on civil liberties due to special laws, affecting their economy and culture.
  • Newly formed states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh struggle to gain autonomy for tribal communities within larger structures.
• Emergence of an Educated Middle Class:
  • An educated middle class is emerging among tribal communities, primarily in the northeastern states, contributing to their empowerment.
  • This is accompanied by class divisions within tribal societies, leading to different bases for asserting tribal identity.
• Primary Issues Leading to Tribal Movements:
  • Control over essential economic resources, such as land and forests.
  • Matters of ethnic-cultural identity.
  • These issues may vary based on the education and socioeconomic status of tribal individuals.
• Tribal Strategies for Existence:
  • Tribes can coexist with the majority, assimilate into dominant groups, or seek political independence.
  • Different tribes adopt different approaches based on their stage of development and goals.
• Economic Integration of Tribes:
  • Agriculture plays a central role in many tribal economies.
  • Despite positive changes, many tribes still live below the poverty line.
• Political Integration and Reservation:
  • Tribes are becoming integrated into the political system through the Panchayati Raj system.
  • Reservation policies have led to increased tribal representation and social development.
• Social Changes and Tribal Identity:
  • Reservation policies have elevated the social status of tribals.
  • Traditional tribal councils have weakened in influence.
• Integration vs. Preservation of Identity:
  • Tribes balance preserving their cultural identity with integrating into the broader Indian society.
  • Economic opportunities are offered to facilitate integration, but concerns about cultural autonomy persist.
• Critiques of Existing Models:
  • Various models have been proposed to understand tribal change, including labeling them as "backward Hindus" or adopting Hindu ideas. A "modernization model" is suggested as an alternative.
• Ethnocentric Bias:
  • Ethnocentric bias exists in Indian society, the government, and among social scientists regarding tribes.
  • Tribes should develop self-confidence and seek opportunities for self-elevation rather than relying solely on government policies.
• Tribal Consciousness and Solidarity:
  • Tribes are conscious of preserving their ethnic and cultural identity and protecting against exploitation.
  • Political solidarity may lead to cultural isolation.
• Need for Economic Opportunities:
  • Assimilationist and isolationist models of integration are discussed.
  • Industrialization in tribal areas has promoted both tribal consciousness and integration.
• Issues with Nomenclature:
  • Terms like "scheduled tribes," "denotified tribes," and "scheduled castes" have divisive connotations.
  • Tribes seek identity and self-determination in a changing social order.
• Religious and Cultural Changes:
  • Many tribes have either Hinduized or converted to Christianity and Islam, reducing the gap between tribes and non-tribals.
  • However, these changes have also created divisions between converts and non-converts, leading to conflicts.
• Conclusion on Tribal Integration:
  • Tribal integration involves complex dynamics influenced by cultural, social, economic, and political factors.
  • The government's role in integration should be complemented by tribal self-confidence and empowerment.

Problems of tribal communities

• Land Alienation:
  • Historical land alienation among tribes dates back to British colonialism when tribal lands were exploited for natural resources.
  • Moneylenders, zamindars, and traders took possession of tribal lands through loans and other means.
  • Mines and factories in tribal areas provided wage labor but also caused displacement.
  • British forest policies favored commercial interests over human welfare, isolating forest-dwellers.
  • Railway expansion damaged tribal forests further.
• Poverty and Indebtedness:
  • Many tribal communities live in poverty due to simple, low-tech occupations.
  • These occupations lack profitability and surplus, resulting in meager per capita income.
  • Indebtedness to local moneylenders and landlords is common, often leading to land mortgage or sale.
  • Indebtedness can lead to bonded labor, slavery, and other socio-economic issues.
• Health and Nutrition:
  • Tribal populations in India suffer from chronic infections, water-borne diseases, and deficiency diseases.
  • Himalayan tribes face goiter due to iodine deficiency, while leprosy and tuberculosis are common.
  • Infant mortality rates are high among some tribes, and malnutrition is widespread.
  • Encroachment on tribal lands affects food supply, and polyandry practices impact fertility.
• Education:
  • Formal education has had limited impact on tribal groups.
  • Superstitions, myths, and lack of relevance to tribal life contribute to low interest in education.
  • Language barriers and the use of unfamiliar subjects hinder educational progress.
  • Preservation and development of tribal languages are urgently needed.
  • Medium of instruction in regional languages disadvantages tribal children.
• Cultural Problems:
  • Contact with other cultures has led to significant changes in tribal culture.
  • Bilingualism and Western influence have eroded tribal languages and customs.
  • Christian missionary influence has played a role in cultural shifts.
  • Traditional tribal arts, including dance, music, and crafts, have faced degeneration.
• Recommendations:
  • The Virginus XaXa committee suggests the development of a "Tribal health plan" as part of the National Health Mission and the Tribal sub-plan.
  • The committee recommends the inclusion of local culture, folklore, and history in the curriculum.
  • Promoting storytelling, theater, painting, music, dance, and local sports can enhance tribal education.
  • Economic constraints make it difficult for tribes to send their children to formal schools, as they are seen as extra helping hands.
  • Western cultural influences are causing significant shifts in tribal cultures, including language and customs.

Tribe-Caste Continuum

• Tribes and Castes Continuum:
  • Anthropologists have debated the relationship between tribes and castes in India.
  • Ghurye believed that tribal people were essentially backward Hindus with varying degrees of difference.
  • Elwin argued for recognizing the separate social and cultural identity of tribal people, a perspective supported by the Indian government through Scheduled Tribe lists.
• Differences Between Tribes and Castes:
  • Andre Beteille noted differences such as tribal isolation, distinct dialects, unique religions, and local practices that set tribes apart from castes.
  • Language is a significant criterion distinguishing tribes, as they often speak their own dialects.
  • N.K. Bose pointed out some similarities in customs and marriage practices between tribes and castes.
• Endogamy and Social Structure:
  • Herbert Risley suggested that endogamy was less strictly enforced in tribes compared to castes.
  • Max Weber highlighted the territorial nature of tribes and the social nature of castes, with tribes being local groups and castes forming social groups.
• Religious Differences:
  • D.N. Majumdar observed that tribes viewed Hindu ritualism as foreign and extrareligious, while in castes, these rituals were integral.
  • In caste societies, individuals typically pursued specific occupations, whereas tribes allowed for more occupational flexibility.
• Bailey's Continuum Theory:
  • Bailey proposed viewing tribes and castes as a continuum, differentiating them based on political and economic systems.
  • He characterized caste societies as hierarchical and tribal societies as segmentary and egalitarian.
  • In contemporary India, both tribes and castes are merging into a new system distinct from either.
• Influence of Hinduism on Tribes:
  • Hinduism has been the major neighboring community for tribes in India, resulting in various degrees of contact and assimilation.
  • Some Hindu castes emerged from tribal strata, and some tribes have been Hinduized and assimilated into different castes.
  • Tribes like Tharu and Khasa in the Central Himalayas have retained some tribal customs but identify as Kshatriya and have adopted Hindu names and customs.
• Selective Acculturation:
  • Many tribes have undergone selective acculturation, incorporating specific Hindu traits into their traditional cultures.
  • Some tribes have failed to occupy a caste hierarchy, while a few have integrated into the lower strata of the Hindu social system.
  • This process of acculturation has varied among tribes and regions in India.
• Sanskritisation Among Tribes:
  • The concept of Sanskritisation, which refers to tribes emulating high-caste practices, is explored, addressing whether it applies to tribes in India.

Exploitation and Unrest of the tribes

• Exploitation and Unrest Among Tribes:
  • Historically, tribal communities in India were considered primitive and lived in remote forested and hilly regions, largely isolated from mainstream civilization.
  • During British colonial rule, the British introduced systems of land ownership and revenue collection in tribal areas.
  • The annual tax burden on tribals was increased significantly, often beyond their capacity to pay.
  • Non-tribals began to settle in tribal areas and offered credit facilities to the tribals, initially providing some relief but later leading to exploitation.
  • Over time, tribal populations faced various forms of exploitation, prompting tribal leaders to mobilize and initiate agitations.
• Factors Contributing to Tribal Unrest:
  • The tribal unrest can be attributed to several factors, including:
  • Indifference from administrators and bureaucracy in addressing tribal grievances.
  • Harsh and unfriendly forest laws and regulations that affected tribal livelihoods.
  • Absence of legislation to prevent the transfer of tribal land into the hands of non-tribals.
  • Lack of access to credit facilities for tribal communities.
  • Ineffectiveness of government measures to rehabilitate tribal populations.
  • Delays in implementing recommendations made by various committees.
  • Discrimination in the implementation of reform measures, exacerbating tribal discontent.

Tribal Development Efforts after Independence

After India gained independence, several efforts and policies were put in place to address the unique challenges faced by tribal communities. These efforts were aimed at holistic development, taking into account the geographical, demographic, and socio-cultural aspects of tribal life.

• Early Experiments:
  • In the early years of independence, community development programs were launched under the first five-year plan to promote rural development, which also extended to tribal areas.
  • However, it became evident that tribal areas required special attention, leading to the establishment of special multipurpose tribal development projects in 1954.
  • These projects covered about 40% of the tribal population in the country through the creation of Tribal Development Blocks.
• Target Group Approach and Tribal Development Experiment:
  • During the fourth five-year plan, a target group approach was introduced, focusing on specific sections of the population, including tribes.
  • Special tribal development agencies were established in states like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa.
  • These agencies addressed problems specific to tribal populations in agriculture, social services, and infrastructure development, while also countering exploitative activities.
• The Tribal Sub-Plan Approach:
  • In the fifth plan, a comprehensive strategy known as the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) was introduced.
  • The TSP aimed to reduce the development gap between tribal and non-tribal populations.
  • It categorized tribal development into three areas:
  • Regions with a substantial tribal population concentration.
  • Smaller areas with dispersed tribal populations.
  • Extremely backward and smaller tribal groups facing survival challenges.
  • These categories led to the establishment of Integrated Tribal Development Projects (MADA), Pockets, and Primitive Tribe Projects.
• TSP Twin Approach:
  • The TSP strategy adopted a twin approach of "area development" and "problem-solving."
  • It aimed to balance economic development, infrastructure, education, and protective measures against exploitation.
  • The strategy intended to bring tribal populations into the mainstream of national life.
• Resource Mobilization:
  • The TSP sought to mobilize resources from various sources, including state plans, sectoral allocations from central ministries, and institutional finance.
  • It resulted in a significant increase in investment in tribal development programs.
• Monitoring and Legislation:
  • A three-tier monitoring system was established at the block, ITDP (Integrated Tribal Development Project), and state levels.
  • Legislative provisions, including those in the Indian Constitution (Article 46, 275, and the Fifth Schedule), were used to protect tribal rights and prevent exploitation.
• Challenges and Ongoing Improvements:
  • Challenges include coordination issues, insufficient beneficiary involvement, and organizational inadequacies.
  • There is a need to enhance the participation of tribal representatives in project formulation and improve consultation at various levels.
  • Strengthening organizational frameworks and addressing the needs of specific tribal groups, such as displaced populations, remains a priority.

Funding of Tribal Development Programmes

Various sources of funds are made available for tribal development programs to address the unique challenges faced by tribal communities:

• State Plan: State governments are required to allocate funds from their State Plans for tribal area development in proportion to the percentage of the tribal population in the states.
• Special Central Assistance: Special Central Assistance is provided by the Central Government to support tribal development efforts.
• Sectoral Programs of Central Ministries/Departments: Central ministries and departments implement sectoral programs that are relevant to tribal development. These programs are designed to address specific needs and challenges faced by tribal communities.
• Institutional Finance: Institutional finance is made available to support tribal development initiatives.

Specific Initiatives Supported by Funding

• Construction of Hostels for Tribal Students:
  • The construction and maintenance expenses of hostels for tribal students are borne by the respective State Governments or Union Territories.
  • Rates for construction differ between plains and hilly areas, and there is a proposal to revise these rates to account for price escalations.
• Vocational Training Institutes:
  • Vocational training institutes are established in inner tribal areas, away from district headquarters, to provide training in various courses relevant to the region.
  • Tribal youth receive training in three trades of their choice, each with a four-month duration.
  • The trainees gain practical experience by working with master craftsmen for three months.
  • The aim is to produce multi-skilled individuals who can take advantage of existing employment opportunities.
• Educational Complexes for Tribal Girls:
  • This scheme provides 100% financial assistance to NGOs, government-established autonomous bodies, educational institutions, and cooperative societies.
  • Educational complexes are established in 136 identified districts with tribal female literacy below 10%.
  • These complexes cater to girls from Class I to V, with 30 students in each class, covering building expenses, teaching, boarding, lodging, and medical care.
• Grant-in-Aid to State Tribal Development Cooperative Corporations (STDCCs):
  • This scheme offers a 100% grant to STDCCs and similar state corporations engaged in collecting and trading minor forest produce (MFP) through tribals.
  • Grants strengthen the share capital of corporations, support warehouse construction, and establish processing industries for MFPs to ensure higher profitability.
• Price Support to TRIFED:
  • Grants-in-aid are provided to TRIFED to offset losses resulting from price fluctuations of MFPs marketed by the corporation.
  • The Ministry is the largest shareholder of TRIFED, contributing over 99% to its share capital.
• Village Grain Banks:
  • This scheme supports the establishment of Village Grain Banks to prevent starvation, especially among STs, in remote tribal villages.
  • Funds cover storage facility construction, procurement of weights and measures, and initial food grain stock purchases.
• Grant-in-Aid to Voluntary Organizations:
  • Various projects focusing on tribal education, literacy, healthcare, vocational training, agriculture, horticulture, craftsmanship, and more are supported by the Ministry through registered non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
• Research and Training:
  • The Ministry provides financial assistance for research and training activities related to tribal development.
  • This includes research and evaluation studies, seminars, workshops, research fellowships for tribal students, support for all-India or inter-state research projects conducted by NGOs, travel grants, and publication of books on tribal matters.