Khilafat Movement and Non-Cooperation Movement | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi assumed leadership of the national movement in 1919, marking the beginning of a crucial phase in Indian nationalism that persisted until independence.
• Gandhi's philosophy centered around Satyagraha(truth-force) and Ahimsa(non-violence) as key strategies in the struggle against British rule.
• During his fight against racial discrimination in South Africa, Gandhi developed the concept of Satyagraha as a method of resistance based on truth and non-violence.
• Gandhi introduced the idea of Satyagraha as a means to combat injustice without resorting to violence, encouraging people to stand up for what they believed was right.
• His Swadeshi program emphasized the connection between political freedom and social, economic changes, advocating for the use of locally made goods, especially the replacement of foreign machine-made products with Indian handmade cloth.
• Gandhi's philosophy of non-violent resistance played a pivotal role in mobilizing millions of people into the national movement when applied to the Indian context.

Background

• Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Background (1919-22): Two mass movements—the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation—united against British rule through non-violent means. Despite differing origins, they shared a common goal.
• Khilafat's Role: While not directly tied to Indian politics, the Khilafat issue provided crucial context, fostering Hindu-Muslim unity against British authorities.
• Post-War Discontent (1919): Following the First World War, disillusionment with British governance grew due to a series of events that shattered hopes for greater Indian autonomy.
• Economic Hardship: The post-war period saw a surge in prices, decreased industrial production, an increased burden of taxes and rents. Nearly all societal segments faced economic difficulties, intensifying anti-British sentiments.
• Repressive Measures: The Rowlatt Act, martial law in Punjab, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre revealed the brutal nature of British rule.
• Hunter Commission Disappointment: The Hunter Commission on the Punjab atrocities was seen as a mere formality, with the House of Lords supporting General Dyer's actions. British public opinion also rallied behind Dyer, exemplified by fundraising efforts for him.
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, particularly the Dyarchy scheme, failed to meet the Indians' growing demands for self-governance.

The post-First World War period also saw the preparation of the ground for common political action by Hindus and Muslims:

• The Lucknow Pact (1916) encouraged cooperation between the Congress and the Muslim League.
• The Rowlatt Act agitation united Hindus, Muslims, various other sections of society.
• Radical nationalist Muslims like Mohammad Ali, Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam gained more influence than the conservative elements of the Aligarh school within the League. These younger figures advocated for militant nationalism and active participation in the nationalist movement, driven by strong anti-imperialist sentiments.
• In this context, the Khilafat issue emerged, leading to the historic Non-Cooperation Movement. The Khilafat movement (1919–1924) was a pan-Islamic political protest launched by Muslims in British India. Its aim was to influence the British government and protect the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of World War I. The movement garnered support from Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress.
• The Khilafat issue united radical nationalists and traditional Muslim scholars against British rule, sparked by the treatment of Turkey post-World War I.
• Muslims in India, like others globally, viewed the Turkish Sultan as their spiritual leader, or Khalifa, sympathized with Turkey, which had allied with Germany and Austria against the British during the war.
• After the war, the British dismantled the Ottoman Empire, removing the Khalifa from power following the Armistice of Mudros(October 1918) and the Treaty of Versailles(1919). The situation worsened with the Treaty of Sèvres(August 1920), which aimed to partition the Ottoman Empire, particularly upsetting the Turks and inciting global Muslim outrage.
• In India, leaders like the Ali Brothers(Mohammad Ali Jauhar and Shaukat Ali), along with figures such as Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, established the All India Khilafat Committee in 1919, demanding that the Caliph retain enough territory to defend Islam and that regions like Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine remain under Muslim control.
• Khilafat Day was observed on October 17, 1919, with Hindus and Muslims joining forces for a strike.

Development of the Khilafat–Non-Cooperation Programme:

• Khilafat leaders initially focused on peaceful actions like meetings, petitions, deputations.
• A more militant approach later emerged, calling for active agitation against the British.
• To promote Hindu-Muslim unity, Swami Shradhanand from the Arya Samaj was invited to speak at the Jama Masjid in Delhi.
• Dr. Kitchlu, a Muslim leader, was entrusted with the keys to the Golden Temple in Amritsar.
• At the All India Khilafat Conference in Delhi in November 1919, a call was made to boycott British goods.
• A Khilafat Manifesto was issued, urging the British to safeguard the Caliphate.
• The manifesto indicated that cooperation would cease if the post-war peace terms were unfavorable to Turkey.
• Khilafat Day was observed on March 19, 1920, followed by an all-party conference in June 1920 at Allahabad.
• The Non-cooperation Movement's agendawas finalized at the conference, which included:
  • Boycott of titles conferred by the government.
  • Boycott of civil services, army, police, other government offices.
  • Non-payment of taxes to the government.
• In the 1920 Delhi session of the All India Khilafat Committee, Shankaracharya of Puri addressed the gathering.
• Gandhi, as the committee president, saw this as a platform for mass non-cooperation against the government.

Congress Stand on Khilafat Question:

• Support from the Congress was crucial for the success of the Khilafat movement.
• Gandhi advocated for Satyagraha and non-cooperation on the Khilafat issue.
• The Congress was divided on Gandhi's approach.
• Tilak opposed aligning with Muslim leaders over a religious matter.
• Tilak was sceptical about Satyagraha as a political tool.
• Gandhi worked hard to persuade Tilak about the benefits of Satyagraha.
• There was resistance to some aspects of Gandhi's non-cooperation program.
• Gandhi secured Congress approval for his political action plan.
• The Congress decided to support the non-cooperation programon the Khilafat issue because:
  • It was seen as a chance to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity and involve Muslim masses in the national movement.
  • The Congress was losing faith in constitutional methods, especially after the Punjab incidents and the Hunter Commission Report.
  • The Congress recognized the public's eagerness to express their discontent.

Muslim League Support to Congress:

• The Muslim League also decided to give full support to the Congress and its agitation on political questions.
• In early 1920, a joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the viceroy to seek redress of grievances on the issue of Khilafat, but the mission proved abortive.

Next developments:

• February 1920: Gandhi emphasized that the issues of the Punjab wrongs and constitutional progress had been overshadowed by the Khilafat question.
• Non-cooperation movement: He indicated his intention to lead a non-cooperation movement if the peace treaty terms did not satisfy Indian Muslims.
• Treaty of Sevres: Signed in May 1920, aimed to dismantle Turkey's territorial integrity.
• June 1920: An all-party conference in Allahabad endorsed a boycott of schools, colleges, law courts, requesting Gandhi to spearhead the initiative.
• August 31, 1920: The Khilafat Committee initiated a non-cooperation campaign, marking the formal launch of the movement, shortly after Tilak's passing.
• In September 1920, during a special session in Calcutta, the Congress approved a non-cooperation program addressing the Punjab and Khilafat grievances and aiming for swaraj. The program included:
  • Boycott of government schools and colleges
  • Boycott of law courts, with justice dispensed through Panchayats
  • Boycott of Legislative Councils, despite some internal disagreements
  • Boycott of foreign cloth, promoting khadi and hand-spinning
  • Renunciation of government honors and titles
  • Pursuit of mass civil disobedience in the second phase, including resignation from government positions and tax non-payment
  • Constructive Program: Participants were expected to promote Hindu-Muslim unity, alcohol prohibition, temperance, establishment of national education institutions, fund collection of one crore rupees, removal of untouchability, all while adhering to non-violence.
• In December 1920, during the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress:

• The non-cooperation program was approved.

• A significant shift in Congress ideology occurred. The goal changed from achieving self-government through constitutional means to striving for swaraj (self-rule) through peaceful and legitimate methods. This marked a commitment to extra-constitutional mass struggle.

• Organizational changes included the establishment of a 15-member Congress Working Committee (CWC) to lead the Congress, the formation of Provincial Congress Committees based on linguistic lines, the creation of ward committees, a reduction in entry fees to four annas.

• The Non-cooperation movement aimed to restore the status of the Turkish ruler, seek justice for the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and other violence in Punjab, secure Swaraj (independence) for India. Gandhi promised Swaraj within a year if the Non-Cooperation Program was fully implemented. The movement was also a response to Gandhi's loss of faith in constitutional methods, marking his shift from cooperating with British Rule to Non-Cooperation.
• Various groups of revolutionary terrorists, particularly from Bengal, expressed their support for the Congress program.
• At this juncture, some leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, G.S. Kharpade, B.C. Pal withdrew from the Congress due to their belief in a constitutional and lawful approach. Others, like Surendranath Banerjee, formed the Indian National Liberal Federation and played a minor role in national politics thereafter.
• The Congress's adoption of the non-cooperation movement, initially proposed by the Khilafat Committee, revitalized the party, leading to an unprecedented popular upsurge in 1921 and 1922.

Spread of the Movement

• First Nationwide Movement: The movement was the first large-scale popular movement across the entire country.
• Gandhi and the Ali Brothers: Gandhi, along with the Ali brothers, traveled throughout the country to promote the movement. Approximately 90,000 students left government educational institutions to join around 800 newly established national schools and colleges.
• Leadership of Educational Institutions: These national schools and colleges were led by prominent figures such as Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, Subhash Bose (who became the principal of the National College in Calcutta), included institutions like Jamia Millia in Aligarh, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth.
• Lawyers Joining the Movement: Many lawyers, including Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T. Prakasam, Rajendra Prasad, gave up their legal practices to join the movement.
• Boycott of Foreign Goods: Foreign cloth was publicly burned, its imports decreased by fifty percent. Picketing of shops selling foreign liquor and toddy shops was common. The Tilak Swaraj Fund was oversubscribed, raising one crore rupees, Congress volunteer corps acted as a parallel police force.
• Ali Brothers and Civil Disobedience: In July 1921, the Ali brothers urged Muslims to resign from the Army for religious reasons. After their arrest in September, Gandhi supported their call, encouraging local Congress committees to pass similar resolutions.
• Call for Civil Disobedience: The Congress party urged local bodies to initiate civil disobedience if they believed the people were prepared for it. Ongoing movements included a no-tax campaign against union board taxes in Midnapore (Bengal) and Guntur (Andhra).
• Strikes in Assam: In Assam, strikes were organized in tea plantations, steamer services, the Assam-Bengal Railways, with J.M. Sengupta being a notable leader.
• Prince of Wales Visit: The visit of the Prince of Wales to India in November 1921 sparked strikes and demonstrations.
• Local Struggles: The atmosphere of defiance led to various local struggles, including the Awadh Kisan Movement (Uttar Pradesh), Eka Movement (Uttar Pradesh), Moppila Revolt (Malabar), the Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants in Punjab.

Government Response:

• In May 1921, talks between Gandhi and Reading, the viceroy, fell apart. The Government wanted Gandhi to ask the Ali brothers to remove parts of their speeches that hinted at violence. Gandhi saw this as an attempt to create a rift between him and the Khilafat leaders and refused to be manipulated.
• In December, the Government took severe action against the protesters. Volunteer corps were made illegal, public meetings were prohibited, the press was censored, most leaders, except for Gandhi, were arrested.

The Last Phase of the Movement:

• Gandhi faced growing pressure from the Congress members to initiate the civil disobedience program. During the Ahemadabad session of 1921, presided over by C.R. Das while he was still in jail, Gandhi was given full authority to decide on the issue.
• On February 1, 1922, Gandhi threatened to start civil disobedience from Bardoli, Gujarat, unless political prisoners were released and press restrictions were lifted. However, the movement was abruptly halted before it could really begin.

Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement:

• On February 5, 1922, a violent incident in the small village of Chauri-Chaura, Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh, led to a significant historical moment. The police had beaten a leader of volunteers protesting against liquor sales and high food prices, then opened fire on the protesting crowd.
• In response to the police action, the agitated crowd set fire to the police station, resulting in the deaths of twenty-two policemen. This escalating violence concerned Gandhi, prompting him to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• In February 1922, the Central Working Committee (CWC) met at Bardoli and decided to halt all activities that involved breaking the law. Instead, they focused on constructive work, which included promoting Khadi, establishing national schools, campaigning for temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, against untouchability.
• Many nationalist leaders, including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhash Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru, were puzzled by Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement. They believed it should not have been stopped due to isolated incidents of violence.
• In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in jail. During his court appearance, he delivered a powerful speech, accepting the penalty for what he considered a deliberate crime in law, but a duty of citizenship in his view.

Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement

• Gandhi's concerns about non-violence: Gandhi believed that not everyone had grasped the principles of non-violence. Incidents like Chauri-Chaura could provoke violence, making the movement vulnerable to suppression by the colonial regime, which could then justify using force against the protesters.

• Signs of fatigue in the movement: The movement was showing signs of fatigue, which is natural over time. Maintaining a high level of intensity in any movement for an extended period is challenging. Additionally, the government appeared disinclined to engage in negotiations.

• Ali brothers' distancing from Gandhi: In response to the unrest, the Ali brothers began to distance themselves from Gandhi and the Congress. They criticized Gandhi's unwavering commitment to non-violence and eventually severed ties after he suspended the non-cooperation movement.

• Khilafat struggle weakening: Despite continuing talks with the British and their activities, the Khilafat struggle weakened as Muslims became divided among the Congress, the Khilafat cause, the Muslim League. The Khilafat leadership fragmented along different political lines.

• Formation of Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam: Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari formed the Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam with the support of Chaudhry Afzal Haq. Meanwhile, leaders like Dr. Ansari, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan continued to support Gandhi and the Congress, while the Ali brothers aligned with the Muslim League.

• Loss of relevance of the Khilafat question: The central theme of the agitation, the Khilafat question, lost significance in November 1922 when the people of Turkey, under Mustafa Kamal Pasha, stripped the Sultan of political power. Turkey transformed into a secular state, establishing a European-style legal system, granting extensive rights to women, nationalizing education, modernizing agriculture and industries.

• Abolition of the caliphate: The caliphate was abolished in 1924, marking the end of the Khilafat issue as a focal point for the movement.

Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement

• The Khilafat Movement involved urban Muslims in the national movement but also made politics more communal. While it reflected a broader anti-imperialist sentiment, national leaders struggled to shift Muslim political awareness from a religious to a secular perspective.

• The Khilafat Movement is viewed by some as a political campaign focused on pan-Islamic and fundamentalist ideals, showing little concern for Indian independence.

• Critics argue that the Khilafat's alliance with the Congress was pragmatic, while supporters see it as a catalyst for the non-cooperation movement and a significant step in improving Hindu-Muslim relations. Advocates of Pakistan view it as a pivotal moment in the push for a separate Muslim state.

• The Non-Cooperation Movement spread nationalist sentiments across India, engaging various groups like artisans, peasants, students, urban poor, women, traders. This widespread involvement gave the national movement a revolutionary character.

• The movement weakened British rule significantly and may have set the stage for India’s independence in 1947.

• Colonial rule rested on two myths: that it served Indian interests and that it was unassailable. Moderate nationalists debunked the first myth through economic critique, while mass struggles challenged the second myth through Satyagraha. This shift diminished the widespread fear of colonial rule and its repressive measures.