Kurukshetra Magazine July 2022 - 4 | Monthly Yojana & Kurukshetra Magazine (English) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


Kurukshetra      July  2022 43
ater is the most critical input for 
agricultural productivity having a 
determining effect on the eventual 
yield. All other inputs/investments 
(quality seeds, fertilizers, high-end technologies, 
etc.) fail to achieve their full potential if crops are 
not optimally watered. Being a predominantly 
Dr. Jagdeep Saxena
Demand of freshwater in agriculture sector is rapidly increasing while its supply is constant. Rainwater harvesting is limited 
due to low water storage capacity and lack of awareness. Due to unsustainable extraction of groundwater, water table is 
receding at an alarming rate of 0.3 meter per year. In agricultural water management, irrigation is a major component but it 
also includes water conservation practices and micro-irrigation techniques. Rice and sugarcane consume almost 60 percent of 
the country’s irrigation water. New technologies and improved agronomic techniques can save irrigation water in significant 
quantities. Micro-irrigation techniques, such as drip and sprinkler , increase water use efficiency, save water and also lead to 
higher yields. Participatory Irrigation Management has emerged as a very effective tool for irrigation water management 
in villages.
Water Management in Agriculture
agricultural country, India needs huge amount 
of water for farming and allied activities. But, 
the country has only four percent share of global 
freshwater resources which is managed to support 
nearly 18 percent of world population. Increasing 
population coupled with food and nutritional 
security has created additional pressure on 
W
‘The earth, the land and the water are not an inheritance from our forefathers but on loan from our 
children. So, we have to handover to them at least as it were handed over to us.’
- Mahatma Gandhi
Page 2


Kurukshetra      July  2022 43
ater is the most critical input for 
agricultural productivity having a 
determining effect on the eventual 
yield. All other inputs/investments 
(quality seeds, fertilizers, high-end technologies, 
etc.) fail to achieve their full potential if crops are 
not optimally watered. Being a predominantly 
Dr. Jagdeep Saxena
Demand of freshwater in agriculture sector is rapidly increasing while its supply is constant. Rainwater harvesting is limited 
due to low water storage capacity and lack of awareness. Due to unsustainable extraction of groundwater, water table is 
receding at an alarming rate of 0.3 meter per year. In agricultural water management, irrigation is a major component but it 
also includes water conservation practices and micro-irrigation techniques. Rice and sugarcane consume almost 60 percent of 
the country’s irrigation water. New technologies and improved agronomic techniques can save irrigation water in significant 
quantities. Micro-irrigation techniques, such as drip and sprinkler , increase water use efficiency, save water and also lead to 
higher yields. Participatory Irrigation Management has emerged as a very effective tool for irrigation water management 
in villages.
Water Management in Agriculture
agricultural country, India needs huge amount 
of water for farming and allied activities. But, 
the country has only four percent share of global 
freshwater resources which is managed to support 
nearly 18 percent of world population. Increasing 
population coupled with food and nutritional 
security has created additional pressure on 
W
‘The earth, the land and the water are not an inheritance from our forefathers but on loan from our 
children. So, we have to handover to them at least as it were handed over to us.’
- Mahatma Gandhi
Kurukshetra      July  2022 44
water resources. Demand of water 
from various sectors of economy 
(urban, industry, and agriculture) is 
rapidly increasing while the supply 
of freshwater is constant. As a 
regular source of fresh water, India 
receives nearly 4,000 BCM (Billion 
Cubic Metre) of precipitation 
(rainwater, snow, hails etc.) per 
year, but approximately 80 percent 
of this is received during monsoon 
season (June-September) only. This 
results in huge run-off losses during 
monsoon and calls for irrigation 
investments for rest of the year. 
Due to limited water harvesting 
infrastructure, only less than one-
third of this precipitation can be 
utilised. The per-capita storage 
capacity is India is low as compared 
to other countries. Annual utilisable surface and 
groundwater resources are estimated to be 690 
BCM and 431 BCM respectively. Average flow of 
rivers is estimated to be 1869 BCM. Groundwater 
is a replenishable source which gets nearly 74 
percent recharge from rainfall and the rest is 
contributed by canals, ponds, reservoirs and other 
water conservation practices. Agriculture sector 
uses 89 percent of the groundwater for irrigation, 
while 11 percent is consumed in the domestic and 
industrial uses. Overall, the agriculture sector is the 
largest freshwater user in the country accounting 
for almost 85 percent of the total water usage. 
This is mainly due to cultivation of water intensive 
crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane and cotton, 
and very low irrigation efficiency. The common 
pool nature of groundwater and the difficulty of 
observing it directly make the resource challenging 
to monitor and regulate. Hence, unsustainable 
extraction levels that exceed natural recharge 
rates are depleting groundwater resources rapidly. 
Water table is receding at an alarming rate of 
0.3 meter per year. The Central Groundwater 
Board has categorised 16.2 percent of the total 
assessment units (Blocks, Mandals or Talukas) 
numbering 6,607 as ‘over-exploited’. Additional 14 
percent units have been categorised at ‘critical’ or 
‘semi-critical’ stage. However, if rainfall is collected 
and managed properly with the help of rainwater 
harvesting and artificial recharge structures 
for augmentation of ground and 
surface water, this can reduce 
dependence on groundwater to 
the tune of about 500 BCM out of 
the total annual water requirement 
of 1200 BCM for all sectors. The 
unsustainable groundwater use 
necessitates demand management 
and supply augmentation 
measures for increased water use 
efficiency in agriculture sector. In 
this context, agricultural water 
management is an imperative in 
the country. Although irrigation is 
a major component in agricultural 
water management, it also includes 
soil, land, and water conservation 
practices; improving the efficiency 
of water use in irrigation; and 
technologies for lifting, storing 
and conveying water. Further, the National Water 
Policy 2012 recommends conservation of existing 
water bodies, rivers, river corridors, etc. 
Managing Water at Source
Soon after independence, Government of India 
pushed ‘Creation and Expansion of Irrigation 
Facilities’ into its top agenda to mitigate 
recurrent famines and hunger. During initial 
years, development of canal irrigation remained 
a priority area in which Government of India 
invested profusely through various irrigation 
projects across the country. As a result, the area 
irrigated by canals increased from 71 lakh hectares 
during 1950-51 to 144 lakh hectares during 1980-
81; and further reached a peak level of 173 lakh 
hectares by the year 1991-92. However, during 
1980s groundwater irrigation expanded at a much 
faster rate than canal irrigation. Consequently, 
area under canal irrigation not only stagnated but 
declined and hovered around 160 lakh hectares 
during 2011-12 to 2014-15, which is 10 lakh 
hectares less than what was achieved 20 years 
back. As a result, the share of canal irrigation in the 
total irrigated area has declined from 37.5 percent 
in 1984-85 to 23.43 percent in 2014-15. There are 
some specific reasons for making canal irrigation 
out of favour : low reliability and reduced flow 
of water at source; poor maintenance of canal 
and tributaries; poor utilisation of the irrigation 
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee 
Yojana (PMKSY) is the most 
comprehensive scheme launched 
in 2015 to increase irrigation 
facilities, promote micro-irrigation 
and support development of 
water conservation and recharge 
structures. State Governments have 
also implemented their own specific 
irrigation schemes. In addition 
to Ministry of Jal Shakti, Central 
Ground Water Board is also working 
towards aquifer rejuvenation, water 
conservation and artificial recharge. 
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural 
Employment Guarantee Scheme 
(MGNREGS) is also significantly 
contributing in water conservation 
efforts across rural India.
Page 3


Kurukshetra      July  2022 43
ater is the most critical input for 
agricultural productivity having a 
determining effect on the eventual 
yield. All other inputs/investments 
(quality seeds, fertilizers, high-end technologies, 
etc.) fail to achieve their full potential if crops are 
not optimally watered. Being a predominantly 
Dr. Jagdeep Saxena
Demand of freshwater in agriculture sector is rapidly increasing while its supply is constant. Rainwater harvesting is limited 
due to low water storage capacity and lack of awareness. Due to unsustainable extraction of groundwater, water table is 
receding at an alarming rate of 0.3 meter per year. In agricultural water management, irrigation is a major component but it 
also includes water conservation practices and micro-irrigation techniques. Rice and sugarcane consume almost 60 percent of 
the country’s irrigation water. New technologies and improved agronomic techniques can save irrigation water in significant 
quantities. Micro-irrigation techniques, such as drip and sprinkler , increase water use efficiency, save water and also lead to 
higher yields. Participatory Irrigation Management has emerged as a very effective tool for irrigation water management 
in villages.
Water Management in Agriculture
agricultural country, India needs huge amount 
of water for farming and allied activities. But, 
the country has only four percent share of global 
freshwater resources which is managed to support 
nearly 18 percent of world population. Increasing 
population coupled with food and nutritional 
security has created additional pressure on 
W
‘The earth, the land and the water are not an inheritance from our forefathers but on loan from our 
children. So, we have to handover to them at least as it were handed over to us.’
- Mahatma Gandhi
Kurukshetra      July  2022 44
water resources. Demand of water 
from various sectors of economy 
(urban, industry, and agriculture) is 
rapidly increasing while the supply 
of freshwater is constant. As a 
regular source of fresh water, India 
receives nearly 4,000 BCM (Billion 
Cubic Metre) of precipitation 
(rainwater, snow, hails etc.) per 
year, but approximately 80 percent 
of this is received during monsoon 
season (June-September) only. This 
results in huge run-off losses during 
monsoon and calls for irrigation 
investments for rest of the year. 
Due to limited water harvesting 
infrastructure, only less than one-
third of this precipitation can be 
utilised. The per-capita storage 
capacity is India is low as compared 
to other countries. Annual utilisable surface and 
groundwater resources are estimated to be 690 
BCM and 431 BCM respectively. Average flow of 
rivers is estimated to be 1869 BCM. Groundwater 
is a replenishable source which gets nearly 74 
percent recharge from rainfall and the rest is 
contributed by canals, ponds, reservoirs and other 
water conservation practices. Agriculture sector 
uses 89 percent of the groundwater for irrigation, 
while 11 percent is consumed in the domestic and 
industrial uses. Overall, the agriculture sector is the 
largest freshwater user in the country accounting 
for almost 85 percent of the total water usage. 
This is mainly due to cultivation of water intensive 
crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane and cotton, 
and very low irrigation efficiency. The common 
pool nature of groundwater and the difficulty of 
observing it directly make the resource challenging 
to monitor and regulate. Hence, unsustainable 
extraction levels that exceed natural recharge 
rates are depleting groundwater resources rapidly. 
Water table is receding at an alarming rate of 
0.3 meter per year. The Central Groundwater 
Board has categorised 16.2 percent of the total 
assessment units (Blocks, Mandals or Talukas) 
numbering 6,607 as ‘over-exploited’. Additional 14 
percent units have been categorised at ‘critical’ or 
‘semi-critical’ stage. However, if rainfall is collected 
and managed properly with the help of rainwater 
harvesting and artificial recharge structures 
for augmentation of ground and 
surface water, this can reduce 
dependence on groundwater to 
the tune of about 500 BCM out of 
the total annual water requirement 
of 1200 BCM for all sectors. The 
unsustainable groundwater use 
necessitates demand management 
and supply augmentation 
measures for increased water use 
efficiency in agriculture sector. In 
this context, agricultural water 
management is an imperative in 
the country. Although irrigation is 
a major component in agricultural 
water management, it also includes 
soil, land, and water conservation 
practices; improving the efficiency 
of water use in irrigation; and 
technologies for lifting, storing 
and conveying water. Further, the National Water 
Policy 2012 recommends conservation of existing 
water bodies, rivers, river corridors, etc. 
Managing Water at Source
Soon after independence, Government of India 
pushed ‘Creation and Expansion of Irrigation 
Facilities’ into its top agenda to mitigate 
recurrent famines and hunger. During initial 
years, development of canal irrigation remained 
a priority area in which Government of India 
invested profusely through various irrigation 
projects across the country. As a result, the area 
irrigated by canals increased from 71 lakh hectares 
during 1950-51 to 144 lakh hectares during 1980-
81; and further reached a peak level of 173 lakh 
hectares by the year 1991-92. However, during 
1980s groundwater irrigation expanded at a much 
faster rate than canal irrigation. Consequently, 
area under canal irrigation not only stagnated but 
declined and hovered around 160 lakh hectares 
during 2011-12 to 2014-15, which is 10 lakh 
hectares less than what was achieved 20 years 
back. As a result, the share of canal irrigation in the 
total irrigated area has declined from 37.5 percent 
in 1984-85 to 23.43 percent in 2014-15. There are 
some specific reasons for making canal irrigation 
out of favour : low reliability and reduced flow 
of water at source; poor maintenance of canal 
and tributaries; poor utilisation of the irrigation 
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee 
Yojana (PMKSY) is the most 
comprehensive scheme launched 
in 2015 to increase irrigation 
facilities, promote micro-irrigation 
and support development of 
water conservation and recharge 
structures. State Governments have 
also implemented their own specific 
irrigation schemes. In addition 
to Ministry of Jal Shakti, Central 
Ground Water Board is also working 
towards aquifer rejuvenation, water 
conservation and artificial recharge. 
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural 
Employment Guarantee Scheme 
(MGNREGS) is also significantly 
contributing in water conservation 
efforts across rural India.
Kurukshetra      July  2022 45
potential created; and an increase in cultivation 
of water intensive crops; and adoption of water 
intensive practices. Presently, canals are irrigating 
those lands, which have large plains, fertile soils 
and perennial rivers. The plains of north India are 
mostly canal irrigated.
Meanwhile, many major (Cultivation Command 
Area, CCA, more than 10,000 hectare), medium 
(CCA 2,000 – 10,000 hectare) and minor (CCA 
less than 2,000 hectare) irrigation schemes were 
launched to improve status of irrigation in India. 
Water resources development and management 
are planned, funded, executed and maintained 
by the State Governments as per their own 
state-specific priorities and resources, while 
Government of India supplements /supports the 
efforts of State Governments by providing financial 
and technical assistance through various schemes 
and programmes. With collective and concerted 
efforts at various levels, utilised irrigation potential 
(surface and groundwater combined) has reached 
to 87 million hectare, while ultimate irrigation 
potential touched 140 million hectare. As per latest 
estimates (2018-19), against total agricultural land 
of 1,80,888 thousand hectares, the cultivated land 
in the country was 1,53,888 thousand hectares, 
out of which net 71,554 thousand hectares was 
irrigated. Rest of the cultivated area, nearly 54 
percent, is rainfed; that is, depends on rainfall 
for irrigation. Even if ultimate irrigation potential 
is achieved, nearly 31 percent of cultivable area 
will remain under rainfed condition. There has 
been substantial disparity in rainfall, it varies 
from less than 100 mm in western Rajasthan to 
Page 4


Kurukshetra      July  2022 43
ater is the most critical input for 
agricultural productivity having a 
determining effect on the eventual 
yield. All other inputs/investments 
(quality seeds, fertilizers, high-end technologies, 
etc.) fail to achieve their full potential if crops are 
not optimally watered. Being a predominantly 
Dr. Jagdeep Saxena
Demand of freshwater in agriculture sector is rapidly increasing while its supply is constant. Rainwater harvesting is limited 
due to low water storage capacity and lack of awareness. Due to unsustainable extraction of groundwater, water table is 
receding at an alarming rate of 0.3 meter per year. In agricultural water management, irrigation is a major component but it 
also includes water conservation practices and micro-irrigation techniques. Rice and sugarcane consume almost 60 percent of 
the country’s irrigation water. New technologies and improved agronomic techniques can save irrigation water in significant 
quantities. Micro-irrigation techniques, such as drip and sprinkler , increase water use efficiency, save water and also lead to 
higher yields. Participatory Irrigation Management has emerged as a very effective tool for irrigation water management 
in villages.
Water Management in Agriculture
agricultural country, India needs huge amount 
of water for farming and allied activities. But, 
the country has only four percent share of global 
freshwater resources which is managed to support 
nearly 18 percent of world population. Increasing 
population coupled with food and nutritional 
security has created additional pressure on 
W
‘The earth, the land and the water are not an inheritance from our forefathers but on loan from our 
children. So, we have to handover to them at least as it were handed over to us.’
- Mahatma Gandhi
Kurukshetra      July  2022 44
water resources. Demand of water 
from various sectors of economy 
(urban, industry, and agriculture) is 
rapidly increasing while the supply 
of freshwater is constant. As a 
regular source of fresh water, India 
receives nearly 4,000 BCM (Billion 
Cubic Metre) of precipitation 
(rainwater, snow, hails etc.) per 
year, but approximately 80 percent 
of this is received during monsoon 
season (June-September) only. This 
results in huge run-off losses during 
monsoon and calls for irrigation 
investments for rest of the year. 
Due to limited water harvesting 
infrastructure, only less than one-
third of this precipitation can be 
utilised. The per-capita storage 
capacity is India is low as compared 
to other countries. Annual utilisable surface and 
groundwater resources are estimated to be 690 
BCM and 431 BCM respectively. Average flow of 
rivers is estimated to be 1869 BCM. Groundwater 
is a replenishable source which gets nearly 74 
percent recharge from rainfall and the rest is 
contributed by canals, ponds, reservoirs and other 
water conservation practices. Agriculture sector 
uses 89 percent of the groundwater for irrigation, 
while 11 percent is consumed in the domestic and 
industrial uses. Overall, the agriculture sector is the 
largest freshwater user in the country accounting 
for almost 85 percent of the total water usage. 
This is mainly due to cultivation of water intensive 
crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane and cotton, 
and very low irrigation efficiency. The common 
pool nature of groundwater and the difficulty of 
observing it directly make the resource challenging 
to monitor and regulate. Hence, unsustainable 
extraction levels that exceed natural recharge 
rates are depleting groundwater resources rapidly. 
Water table is receding at an alarming rate of 
0.3 meter per year. The Central Groundwater 
Board has categorised 16.2 percent of the total 
assessment units (Blocks, Mandals or Talukas) 
numbering 6,607 as ‘over-exploited’. Additional 14 
percent units have been categorised at ‘critical’ or 
‘semi-critical’ stage. However, if rainfall is collected 
and managed properly with the help of rainwater 
harvesting and artificial recharge structures 
for augmentation of ground and 
surface water, this can reduce 
dependence on groundwater to 
the tune of about 500 BCM out of 
the total annual water requirement 
of 1200 BCM for all sectors. The 
unsustainable groundwater use 
necessitates demand management 
and supply augmentation 
measures for increased water use 
efficiency in agriculture sector. In 
this context, agricultural water 
management is an imperative in 
the country. Although irrigation is 
a major component in agricultural 
water management, it also includes 
soil, land, and water conservation 
practices; improving the efficiency 
of water use in irrigation; and 
technologies for lifting, storing 
and conveying water. Further, the National Water 
Policy 2012 recommends conservation of existing 
water bodies, rivers, river corridors, etc. 
Managing Water at Source
Soon after independence, Government of India 
pushed ‘Creation and Expansion of Irrigation 
Facilities’ into its top agenda to mitigate 
recurrent famines and hunger. During initial 
years, development of canal irrigation remained 
a priority area in which Government of India 
invested profusely through various irrigation 
projects across the country. As a result, the area 
irrigated by canals increased from 71 lakh hectares 
during 1950-51 to 144 lakh hectares during 1980-
81; and further reached a peak level of 173 lakh 
hectares by the year 1991-92. However, during 
1980s groundwater irrigation expanded at a much 
faster rate than canal irrigation. Consequently, 
area under canal irrigation not only stagnated but 
declined and hovered around 160 lakh hectares 
during 2011-12 to 2014-15, which is 10 lakh 
hectares less than what was achieved 20 years 
back. As a result, the share of canal irrigation in the 
total irrigated area has declined from 37.5 percent 
in 1984-85 to 23.43 percent in 2014-15. There are 
some specific reasons for making canal irrigation 
out of favour : low reliability and reduced flow 
of water at source; poor maintenance of canal 
and tributaries; poor utilisation of the irrigation 
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee 
Yojana (PMKSY) is the most 
comprehensive scheme launched 
in 2015 to increase irrigation 
facilities, promote micro-irrigation 
and support development of 
water conservation and recharge 
structures. State Governments have 
also implemented their own specific 
irrigation schemes. In addition 
to Ministry of Jal Shakti, Central 
Ground Water Board is also working 
towards aquifer rejuvenation, water 
conservation and artificial recharge. 
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural 
Employment Guarantee Scheme 
(MGNREGS) is also significantly 
contributing in water conservation 
efforts across rural India.
Kurukshetra      July  2022 45
potential created; and an increase in cultivation 
of water intensive crops; and adoption of water 
intensive practices. Presently, canals are irrigating 
those lands, which have large plains, fertile soils 
and perennial rivers. The plains of north India are 
mostly canal irrigated.
Meanwhile, many major (Cultivation Command 
Area, CCA, more than 10,000 hectare), medium 
(CCA 2,000 – 10,000 hectare) and minor (CCA 
less than 2,000 hectare) irrigation schemes were 
launched to improve status of irrigation in India. 
Water resources development and management 
are planned, funded, executed and maintained 
by the State Governments as per their own 
state-specific priorities and resources, while 
Government of India supplements /supports the 
efforts of State Governments by providing financial 
and technical assistance through various schemes 
and programmes. With collective and concerted 
efforts at various levels, utilised irrigation potential 
(surface and groundwater combined) has reached 
to 87 million hectare, while ultimate irrigation 
potential touched 140 million hectare. As per latest 
estimates (2018-19), against total agricultural land 
of 1,80,888 thousand hectares, the cultivated land 
in the country was 1,53,888 thousand hectares, 
out of which net 71,554 thousand hectares was 
irrigated. Rest of the cultivated area, nearly 54 
percent, is rainfed; that is, depends on rainfall 
for irrigation. Even if ultimate irrigation potential 
is achieved, nearly 31 percent of cultivable area 
will remain under rainfed condition. There has 
been substantial disparity in rainfall, it varies 
from less than 100 mm in western Rajasthan to 
Kurukshetra      July  2022 46
more than 2500 mm in north-eastern part of the 
country. Such condition necessitates formulation 
of different set of strategies to manage irrigation 
for whole year.
It is generally observed and well recognised that 
Indian farmers use 2 to 4 times more water to 
produce a unit major food crop than in China or 
Brazil. Hence, wise and efficient use of water is a 
must for sustainable development of agriculture 
sector and national food security. In this context, 
two crops–rice and sugarcane–deserve special 
attention as only these two crops consume almost 
60 percent of the country’s irrigation water. 
Technologies are available which can produce the 
same output with nearly half the irrigation water 
in these two crops. For instance, around 3,000 
litres of water is used to produce one kilogram of 
paddy grain under the traditional flood irrigation. 
Whereas, under drip system of irrigation the 
requirement can be slashed to just 842 litres. New 
technologies, such as Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) and 
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) can also save 
25 to 30 percent of water compared to traditional 
flood irrigation. In sugarcane, trench farming has 
been found very effective in saving water. About 
300 farmers in Uttar Pradesh have been able to 
reduce water usage using trench farming and 
they have saved an estimated 60 million litres of 
water during 2019-2021. State Governments need 
to motivate farmers for adoption of scientifically 
designed cropping patterns to ensure optimum 
utilisation of water. Scheduling of irrigation is 
another simple and effective methodology to 
save water and energy. In the process, the correct 
frequency and duration of watering is determined 
on the basis of moisture in the soil and stage of 
the crop growth. About 35-40 percent water can 
be saved by scheduling of irrigation along with 
significant reduction in fertilizer use. Moisture 
sensors and automated irrigation systems which 
can be controlled by a farmer using smart phone, 
will help in deciding the time and amount of 
irrigation to be carried out.
The traditional methods of irrigation, mainly 
flood irrigation, have low irrigation efficiency 
(38 percent) due to excessive seepage loss and 
inequitable and untimely supplies. Adoption of 
water saving technologies such as sprinkler and 
drip irrigation systems have proven extremely 
effective in not just water conservation but 
also lead to higher yields. It has been observed 
that among various methods of irrigation, drip 
irrigation has achieved highest application 
efficiency of 90 percent with over-all efficiency 
ranging between 80-90 percent. New agronomic 
practices such as raised bed planting, ridge-furrow 
method of sowing, sub-surface irrigation and 
precision farming are also helpful in increasing 
irrigation efficiency. In this context, Government 
of India has launched new policies and schemes to 
increase area under irrigation and enhance water 
use efficiency.
Pushing Irrigation to New Heights
Among various schemes launched by Central 
Government, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee 
Yojana (PMKSY) is the most comprehensive one 
aiming at protective irrigation for all agricultural 
farms in the country. Launched in 2015-16, it has 
the following 4 major components.
• Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme 
(AIBP),
• Har Khet Ko Pani (HKKP),
• Per Drop More Crop (PDMC), and
• Integrated Watershed Management 
Programme.
AIBP covers major to medium irrigation projects 
that involve an area of more than 2,000 hectare. 
During 2016-17, 99 on-going major/medium 
irrigation projects have been prioritised in 
consultation with States for completion in phases. 
Out of this, 44 projects have been reported to be 
completed/almost completed and an additional 
irrigation potential of 21.45 lakh hectare has 
been reported to be created by these projects. 
HKKP-Command Area Development and Water 
Management (CADWM) programme aims to 
utilise created irrigation potential as soon as 
project is completed. Further, its objectives 
include improving water use efficiency; increasing 
agricultural productivity and production; and 
bring sustainability in the irrigated agriculture in 
a participatory environment. So far, about 14.85 
lakh hectare cultural command area has been 
developed. Under HKKP-Surface Minor Irrigation 
scheme, the total number of sanctioned projects 
are 6,213 and 3,098 schemes have been completed 
Page 5


Kurukshetra      July  2022 43
ater is the most critical input for 
agricultural productivity having a 
determining effect on the eventual 
yield. All other inputs/investments 
(quality seeds, fertilizers, high-end technologies, 
etc.) fail to achieve their full potential if crops are 
not optimally watered. Being a predominantly 
Dr. Jagdeep Saxena
Demand of freshwater in agriculture sector is rapidly increasing while its supply is constant. Rainwater harvesting is limited 
due to low water storage capacity and lack of awareness. Due to unsustainable extraction of groundwater, water table is 
receding at an alarming rate of 0.3 meter per year. In agricultural water management, irrigation is a major component but it 
also includes water conservation practices and micro-irrigation techniques. Rice and sugarcane consume almost 60 percent of 
the country’s irrigation water. New technologies and improved agronomic techniques can save irrigation water in significant 
quantities. Micro-irrigation techniques, such as drip and sprinkler , increase water use efficiency, save water and also lead to 
higher yields. Participatory Irrigation Management has emerged as a very effective tool for irrigation water management 
in villages.
Water Management in Agriculture
agricultural country, India needs huge amount 
of water for farming and allied activities. But, 
the country has only four percent share of global 
freshwater resources which is managed to support 
nearly 18 percent of world population. Increasing 
population coupled with food and nutritional 
security has created additional pressure on 
W
‘The earth, the land and the water are not an inheritance from our forefathers but on loan from our 
children. So, we have to handover to them at least as it were handed over to us.’
- Mahatma Gandhi
Kurukshetra      July  2022 44
water resources. Demand of water 
from various sectors of economy 
(urban, industry, and agriculture) is 
rapidly increasing while the supply 
of freshwater is constant. As a 
regular source of fresh water, India 
receives nearly 4,000 BCM (Billion 
Cubic Metre) of precipitation 
(rainwater, snow, hails etc.) per 
year, but approximately 80 percent 
of this is received during monsoon 
season (June-September) only. This 
results in huge run-off losses during 
monsoon and calls for irrigation 
investments for rest of the year. 
Due to limited water harvesting 
infrastructure, only less than one-
third of this precipitation can be 
utilised. The per-capita storage 
capacity is India is low as compared 
to other countries. Annual utilisable surface and 
groundwater resources are estimated to be 690 
BCM and 431 BCM respectively. Average flow of 
rivers is estimated to be 1869 BCM. Groundwater 
is a replenishable source which gets nearly 74 
percent recharge from rainfall and the rest is 
contributed by canals, ponds, reservoirs and other 
water conservation practices. Agriculture sector 
uses 89 percent of the groundwater for irrigation, 
while 11 percent is consumed in the domestic and 
industrial uses. Overall, the agriculture sector is the 
largest freshwater user in the country accounting 
for almost 85 percent of the total water usage. 
This is mainly due to cultivation of water intensive 
crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane and cotton, 
and very low irrigation efficiency. The common 
pool nature of groundwater and the difficulty of 
observing it directly make the resource challenging 
to monitor and regulate. Hence, unsustainable 
extraction levels that exceed natural recharge 
rates are depleting groundwater resources rapidly. 
Water table is receding at an alarming rate of 
0.3 meter per year. The Central Groundwater 
Board has categorised 16.2 percent of the total 
assessment units (Blocks, Mandals or Talukas) 
numbering 6,607 as ‘over-exploited’. Additional 14 
percent units have been categorised at ‘critical’ or 
‘semi-critical’ stage. However, if rainfall is collected 
and managed properly with the help of rainwater 
harvesting and artificial recharge structures 
for augmentation of ground and 
surface water, this can reduce 
dependence on groundwater to 
the tune of about 500 BCM out of 
the total annual water requirement 
of 1200 BCM for all sectors. The 
unsustainable groundwater use 
necessitates demand management 
and supply augmentation 
measures for increased water use 
efficiency in agriculture sector. In 
this context, agricultural water 
management is an imperative in 
the country. Although irrigation is 
a major component in agricultural 
water management, it also includes 
soil, land, and water conservation 
practices; improving the efficiency 
of water use in irrigation; and 
technologies for lifting, storing 
and conveying water. Further, the National Water 
Policy 2012 recommends conservation of existing 
water bodies, rivers, river corridors, etc. 
Managing Water at Source
Soon after independence, Government of India 
pushed ‘Creation and Expansion of Irrigation 
Facilities’ into its top agenda to mitigate 
recurrent famines and hunger. During initial 
years, development of canal irrigation remained 
a priority area in which Government of India 
invested profusely through various irrigation 
projects across the country. As a result, the area 
irrigated by canals increased from 71 lakh hectares 
during 1950-51 to 144 lakh hectares during 1980-
81; and further reached a peak level of 173 lakh 
hectares by the year 1991-92. However, during 
1980s groundwater irrigation expanded at a much 
faster rate than canal irrigation. Consequently, 
area under canal irrigation not only stagnated but 
declined and hovered around 160 lakh hectares 
during 2011-12 to 2014-15, which is 10 lakh 
hectares less than what was achieved 20 years 
back. As a result, the share of canal irrigation in the 
total irrigated area has declined from 37.5 percent 
in 1984-85 to 23.43 percent in 2014-15. There are 
some specific reasons for making canal irrigation 
out of favour : low reliability and reduced flow 
of water at source; poor maintenance of canal 
and tributaries; poor utilisation of the irrigation 
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee 
Yojana (PMKSY) is the most 
comprehensive scheme launched 
in 2015 to increase irrigation 
facilities, promote micro-irrigation 
and support development of 
water conservation and recharge 
structures. State Governments have 
also implemented their own specific 
irrigation schemes. In addition 
to Ministry of Jal Shakti, Central 
Ground Water Board is also working 
towards aquifer rejuvenation, water 
conservation and artificial recharge. 
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural 
Employment Guarantee Scheme 
(MGNREGS) is also significantly 
contributing in water conservation 
efforts across rural India.
Kurukshetra      July  2022 45
potential created; and an increase in cultivation 
of water intensive crops; and adoption of water 
intensive practices. Presently, canals are irrigating 
those lands, which have large plains, fertile soils 
and perennial rivers. The plains of north India are 
mostly canal irrigated.
Meanwhile, many major (Cultivation Command 
Area, CCA, more than 10,000 hectare), medium 
(CCA 2,000 – 10,000 hectare) and minor (CCA 
less than 2,000 hectare) irrigation schemes were 
launched to improve status of irrigation in India. 
Water resources development and management 
are planned, funded, executed and maintained 
by the State Governments as per their own 
state-specific priorities and resources, while 
Government of India supplements /supports the 
efforts of State Governments by providing financial 
and technical assistance through various schemes 
and programmes. With collective and concerted 
efforts at various levels, utilised irrigation potential 
(surface and groundwater combined) has reached 
to 87 million hectare, while ultimate irrigation 
potential touched 140 million hectare. As per latest 
estimates (2018-19), against total agricultural land 
of 1,80,888 thousand hectares, the cultivated land 
in the country was 1,53,888 thousand hectares, 
out of which net 71,554 thousand hectares was 
irrigated. Rest of the cultivated area, nearly 54 
percent, is rainfed; that is, depends on rainfall 
for irrigation. Even if ultimate irrigation potential 
is achieved, nearly 31 percent of cultivable area 
will remain under rainfed condition. There has 
been substantial disparity in rainfall, it varies 
from less than 100 mm in western Rajasthan to 
Kurukshetra      July  2022 46
more than 2500 mm in north-eastern part of the 
country. Such condition necessitates formulation 
of different set of strategies to manage irrigation 
for whole year.
It is generally observed and well recognised that 
Indian farmers use 2 to 4 times more water to 
produce a unit major food crop than in China or 
Brazil. Hence, wise and efficient use of water is a 
must for sustainable development of agriculture 
sector and national food security. In this context, 
two crops–rice and sugarcane–deserve special 
attention as only these two crops consume almost 
60 percent of the country’s irrigation water. 
Technologies are available which can produce the 
same output with nearly half the irrigation water 
in these two crops. For instance, around 3,000 
litres of water is used to produce one kilogram of 
paddy grain under the traditional flood irrigation. 
Whereas, under drip system of irrigation the 
requirement can be slashed to just 842 litres. New 
technologies, such as Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) and 
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) can also save 
25 to 30 percent of water compared to traditional 
flood irrigation. In sugarcane, trench farming has 
been found very effective in saving water. About 
300 farmers in Uttar Pradesh have been able to 
reduce water usage using trench farming and 
they have saved an estimated 60 million litres of 
water during 2019-2021. State Governments need 
to motivate farmers for adoption of scientifically 
designed cropping patterns to ensure optimum 
utilisation of water. Scheduling of irrigation is 
another simple and effective methodology to 
save water and energy. In the process, the correct 
frequency and duration of watering is determined 
on the basis of moisture in the soil and stage of 
the crop growth. About 35-40 percent water can 
be saved by scheduling of irrigation along with 
significant reduction in fertilizer use. Moisture 
sensors and automated irrigation systems which 
can be controlled by a farmer using smart phone, 
will help in deciding the time and amount of 
irrigation to be carried out.
The traditional methods of irrigation, mainly 
flood irrigation, have low irrigation efficiency 
(38 percent) due to excessive seepage loss and 
inequitable and untimely supplies. Adoption of 
water saving technologies such as sprinkler and 
drip irrigation systems have proven extremely 
effective in not just water conservation but 
also lead to higher yields. It has been observed 
that among various methods of irrigation, drip 
irrigation has achieved highest application 
efficiency of 90 percent with over-all efficiency 
ranging between 80-90 percent. New agronomic 
practices such as raised bed planting, ridge-furrow 
method of sowing, sub-surface irrigation and 
precision farming are also helpful in increasing 
irrigation efficiency. In this context, Government 
of India has launched new policies and schemes to 
increase area under irrigation and enhance water 
use efficiency.
Pushing Irrigation to New Heights
Among various schemes launched by Central 
Government, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee 
Yojana (PMKSY) is the most comprehensive one 
aiming at protective irrigation for all agricultural 
farms in the country. Launched in 2015-16, it has 
the following 4 major components.
• Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme 
(AIBP),
• Har Khet Ko Pani (HKKP),
• Per Drop More Crop (PDMC), and
• Integrated Watershed Management 
Programme.
AIBP covers major to medium irrigation projects 
that involve an area of more than 2,000 hectare. 
During 2016-17, 99 on-going major/medium 
irrigation projects have been prioritised in 
consultation with States for completion in phases. 
Out of this, 44 projects have been reported to be 
completed/almost completed and an additional 
irrigation potential of 21.45 lakh hectare has 
been reported to be created by these projects. 
HKKP-Command Area Development and Water 
Management (CADWM) programme aims to 
utilise created irrigation potential as soon as 
project is completed. Further, its objectives 
include improving water use efficiency; increasing 
agricultural productivity and production; and 
bring sustainability in the irrigated agriculture in 
a participatory environment. So far, about 14.85 
lakh hectare cultural command area has been 
developed. Under HKKP-Surface Minor Irrigation 
scheme, the total number of sanctioned projects 
are 6,213 and 3,098 schemes have been completed 
Kurukshetra      July  2022 47
upto March, 2020. During 2017-20, Surface Minor 
Irrigation (SMI) scheme could achieve irrigation 
potential of 1.20 lakh hectare. HKKP also runs 
a specific program for repair, renovation and 
restoration of water bodies. Out of 2,319 water 
bodies approved, 1,359 have been renovated as 
of March, 2020 with net irrigation potential of 
0.5283 lakh hectare. Watershed Development 
Programme, running across the country, has 
successfully and significantly improved the 
availability of surface and groundwater in project 
areas. Since 2014-15, 7.09 lakh water harvesting 
structures have been created/rejuvenated and an 
additional area of 15.17 lakh hectare  was brought 
under protective irrigation up to third quarter of 
2020-21. The programme has also led to increase 
in productivity, vegetative cover, livelihood 
opportunities and household incomes causing 
socio-economic transformation. ‘Per Drop More 
Crop’ component of PMKSY focuses on enhancing 
water use efficiency at farm level through micro-
irrigation systems (Drip, Sprinkler, Fogger etc.). 
This component also supports micro level storage 
or water conservation/management activities to 
supplement source creation for micro-irrigation. 
During 2015-16 to March, 2021, micro-irrigation 
has achieved an impressive coverage of 53.69 lakh 
hectare on All-India basis. In addition, 4.84 lakh 
micro level water harvesting/secondary storage 
structures have been created to supplement 
the micro-irrigation. To provide impetus to 
micro-irrigation, Government of India created 
a special Micro-Irrigation Fund with a corpus 
of Rs. 5,000 crore during 2018-19 with NABARD 
as implementing agency. This fund facilitates 
the States in further mobilising the resources to 
provide additional incentives to farmers beyond 
the provisions available under PMKSY-PDMC. This 
fund is facilitating to bring another 12.83 lakh 
hectares area under micro-irrigation in the States 
of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, 
West Bengal, Punjab and Uttarakhand. In view of 
growing interest of many other States in micro-
irrigation, Government of India, in its budget 
for 2021-22, has doubled the initial corpus of  
Rs 5,000 crore by augmenting in by another Rs 5,000 
crore. In addition to efficient use of water, micro-
irrigation ensured higher productivity, reduction 
in labour cost, saving in power consumption, 
and reduction in fertilizer use. Micro-irrigation 
techniques help farmers to get better returns due 
to higher productivity, high quality of produce and 
savings on other inputs.
Several State Governments also acted 
simultaneously and designed their own 
participatory irrigation management programmes. 
In the State of Bihar, interventions by ‘Jal Jeevan 
Hariyali Abhiyan’ have increased the number 
of water structures (over 2,600 checks dams 
constructed); developed plantations (over 
41,600 plantations); and enhanced the use of 
micro irrigation significantly. In Chattisgarh, 
construction of small dams, canals and dykes 
resulted in additional groundwater recharge. The 
State of Jharkhand launched a special scheme, 
‘Neelambar Pitambar Jal Samridhi Yojana’ in May, 
2020 for creation of field bunding, rejuvenation of 
nalas and construction of soak pits. As a result, 
currently, on an average five schemes of water 
conservation are running in every village in the 
Lohardaga district of Jharkhand. ‘Birsa Munda 
Krishi Kranti Yojana’ in Maharashtra has increased 
micro-irrigation area and took up construction of 
new wells and ponds along with repair of unused 
wells. Now, irrigation water is available in water 
scarce tribal areas.
Conservation is Another Key
Among various water conservation techniques, 
mulching is a simple, ‘easy-to-do’, effective and 
comparatively low cost means that reduces water 
loss by checking evaporation from soil surface. 
Mulch is any covering material, either organic 
or inorganic, applied on soil surface to create 
a barricade which does not allow escape of soil 
moisture. The moisture is conserved for many days 
thus reducing the demand of irrigation during the 
period of crop cultivation. Additionally, mulching 
improves soil structure, reduces soil salinity and 
also controls weeds. Various types of plastic 
mulches are available in market, but mulching can 
also be effectively done by using agri wastes such 
as wheat straw, gross clippings, leaf debris, etc. 
Plastic film lining has proved to be an effective tool 
against loss of water through seepage in canals, 
ponds and reservoirs. By reducing seepage losses 
up to 100 percent, it improves water availability 
over a longer period of time for irrigation purposes. 
It also prevents soil erosion and is highly useful in 
porous soils where water retention in ponds in a