Lineage & Descent in India | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction to Lineage & Descent in India

In India, the predominant system of tracing lineage is through the father's line, known as patrilineal descent. However, there are also matrilineal societies, such as the Garo, Khasi, Pahadi, Nayar, Mappilla, Lakshadweep islanders, and several tribal and non-tribal groups in southern India, where descent is traced through the mother's line. In addition to these two main systems, there are also examples of cognatic communities, such as Anglo-Indians and some tribal groups, which have bilateral tendencies. They may take the name from the father but also consider the mother's line in tracing their descent.

• Different patterns of residence may be followed after marriage. Patrilocal residence, where the wife joins her husband's family, is the most common in India. Matrilocal residence, where the husband moves in with his wife's family, is found among the Khasi, the Nayar, and several other matrilineal groups. In some tribal communities, a neolocal residence (a new house for the newlywed couple) is preferred, although it is more common for them to set up a new home after a period of stay in a patrilocal or matrilocal setting. In Lakshadweep and central Kerala, the approved pattern of residence is duolocal, where the husband continues to live in his mother's Tarawad (ancestral house) and the wife in her mother's Tarawad.
• India is often described as a country of joint families, although a distinction is made between nuclear and extended families in social anthropological and sociological literature. A nuclear family consists of a married couple and their children, while an extended family is a larger group composed of two or more generations of lineally related members, their spouses, and children. Most nuclear families eventually grow into extended families and may later break up into incomplete extended families or nuclear families.

• Kinship in Indian society refers to the recognition of relatives either through blood relationships (consanguinity) or marriage (affinity). The entire range of kinship ties may not now be as important as they once used to be, but they still play an important supportive or corrective role in social, economic, and political spheres. The rules of descent, residence, and inheritance have been discussed in the context of the family, but it is necessary to distinguish between the broad features of kinship in northern and southern India and to briefly comment on some special cases.
• In north India, the basic kinship groups are patrilineage (Kula/Vansha), Gotra, and Jati (caste). A man is not expected to marry within the Gotra of his father, mother, father's mother, and mother's mother. In south India, the general features are the same, with some important exceptions. Patrilineages figure in some communities, while matrilineages dominate others. There are also some unique cases, such as the Khasi of Meghalaya, who follow matrilineal descent and inheritance, with the youngest daughter being the heiress and custodian of the family's rituals and property.

In conclusion, while the kinship system in India is complex and diverse, it continues to play a significant role in the social, economic, and political spheres of the country. The variations in rules of descent, residence, and inheritance reflect the rich cultural diversity of the Indian society.

Types of Kinship Systems 

Kinship systems in India can be analyzed both within the family and beyond the family, as well as in terms of the connection between the two. Within the family, kinship involves primary relationships, focusing on intra-family ties such as husband and wife, father and son, mother and daughter, and siblings. These relationships are part of the nuclear family, which is also referred to as the 'family beyond family,' consisting of secondary and tertiary relatives. According to Murdock, there are eight primary and thirty-three secondary relatives, with each secondary relative having primary relatives. The tertiary relatives include 151 possible kin, and there are also distant relatives beyond these levels.

• Indian kinship systems exhibit a great variety, with 'clan exogamy' and 'caste endogamy' being common features. A given caste may have several clans, and a given clan may have several lineages. The common ancestor of lineage members is usually an actual remembered person, while the common ancestor of a clan is often a legendary or supernatural entity. Clan members are spread over a given area, which may limit their ability to share common interests or engage in joint actions. However, a clan often provides a basis for corporate activity and common worship, and it determines eligibility for marriage within a given caste. Caste ethnocentrism plays a significant role in the observance of rituals, economic activities, and mutual aid, in addition to 'feminal kin' and 'fictive kin.'
• While kinship is a major basis for social organization in India, it can also be a source of division and conflict, particularly in regards to property succession and inheritance. Hostility may sometimes overshadow lineage unity, with disputes between family members such as sons and grandsons, brothers and cousins, and sibling rivalries being relatively common.

Karve's Study of Kinship Organization in India

In her study of kinship organization in India, Iravati Karve conducts a comparative analysis of four cultural zones to identify regional patterns of social behavior. She acknowledges that variations exist between castes due to hierarchy and caste-based isolation. Karve's analysis focuses on the processes of acculturation and accommodation within the context of kinship and adopts a historical perspective, spanning 3000 years, which draws from ethnosources, observations, folk literature, and Sanskritic texts.

Karve's comparative study considers the following aspects:

• Kinship terms in Indian languages and their linguistic contexts, along with corresponding behaviors and attitudes.
• Rules of descent and inheritance.
• Marriage and family patterns.
• Differences between the Sanskritic north and the Dravidian south.

To better understand the patterns of kinship in India, Karve identifies the linguistic regions, caste institutions, and family organizations as the most crucial foundations. She divides India into northern, central, southern, and eastern zones, considering linguistic, caste, and family organizations. While kinship organization generally follows the linguistic pattern, language and kinship do not always align. For instance, Maharashtra has Dravidian influences, and the Dravidian kinship system has been impacted by northern neighbors who speak Sanskritic languages.

Kinship in North India

In North India, kinship is characterized by (1) terms for blood relations, and (2) terms for affinal relations. There are primary terms for three generations of immediate relations, which cannot be exchanged for those of another generation. The northern zone consists of the Sindhi, Punjabi, Hindi (and Pahari), Bihari, Bengali, Assami, and Nepali areas. In these areas, caste endogamy, clan exogamy, and incest taboos regarding sexual relations between primary kins are strictly observed. The rule of sasan is key to all marriage alliances, which means that a person must not marry in his patrifamily and must avoid marriage with sapindakin. Gotras, in the old Brahminic sense of the word, are exogamous units.

• There are four basic features of kinship in North India: (1) territoriality, (2) genealogy, (3) incest taboos, and (4) local exogamy. Caste status considerations tend to restrict the area of endogamy. Marriage prohibitions tend to bar marriage over a wide area in terms of kinship, as well as adhered to in space.
• In northern India, village exogamy is strictly adhered to: A bride travels from her natal village to her marital home in a Palki. Cognatic prohibitions and local exogamy are strictly adhered to in marriage alliances. The four-gotra (sasan) rule is generally practiced, particularly among the Brahmins and other upper castes in North India. However, some intermediate and most of the lower caste avoid gotras of father and mother only.

Kinship in Central India

The central zone comprises the linguistic regions of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Kathiawad, Maharashtra, and Orissa with their respective languages, namely, Rajasthani, Hindi, Gujrati and Kathiawadi, Marathi, and Oriya. All these languages are of Sanskritic origin, and therefore they have affinity to the northern zone. However, there are pockets of Dravidian languages in this region, as well as some impact from the eastern zone. Tribal people have their unique and somewhat different position compared to other people in the region.

• In the central zone, cross-cousin marriages are prevalent, which are not witnessed in the north zone. Many castes are divided into exogamous clans like the north zone. In some castes, exogamous clans are arranged in a hypergamous hierarchy. However, none of these features are found all over the zone.
• In Rajasthan, Jats follow two-gotra exogamy along with village exogamy; Banias practice the four-gotra rule; and Rajputs have hypergamous clans and consideration of feudal status in marriage alliances. In Kathiawad and Gujarat, one finds a mix of peculiar local customs and northern practices. Some castes allowed cross-cousin marriages, others allowed marriages once a year, and some others permitted once every four, five, nine, or twelve years. The practice of 'Nantra' (levirate) exists even today.
• Maharashtra is an area where Sanskritic northern traits almost hold a balance with perhaps a slight dominance of the former. The caste structure is a little different from both southern and northern zones. The Marathas and Kunbis together form about forty per cent of the population. Marathas are supposed to be higher in status but a rich Kunbi can reach the status of a Maratha. The two groups call themselves Kshatriyas. The Maratha-Kunbi complex has been a ruling class.
• Kunbis are divided into exogamous clans. Some practice levirate; others observe cross-cousin marriages as a taboo; but some others do not prohibit such marriages. In central Maharashtra, hypergamy and clan exogamy exist. In southern Maharashtra, there are instances of both types of marriages, namely, cross-cousin and uncle-niece.
• The tribal people in Orissa, like Gonds, Oraons, and Konds, speak Dravidian languages, and their kinship system can be equated with that of the Dravidian-speaking people. The Munda, the Bond, and some of the Saora speak Mundari languages. The Oriya-speaking people have the same type of caste divisions as are found in northern regions with slightly different names. Some agricultural castes in Orissa allow cousin marriage, but others prohibit it. Junior levirate is found among the poorer classes.

Kinship in South India

South India consists of five regions, namely Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and mixed-language regions. The kinship system and family organization in this area are quite complex, with both patrilineal and matrilineal systems present. Some castes even allow polyandry, polygyny, and polygamy.

• In Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and some Malabar castes, the patrilineal and patrilocal joint family is dominant, similar to the northern zone of India. However, some communities like the Nayars, Tiyans, Moplas in Malabar, and Bants in Kanara district follow a matrilineal and matrilocal family system, known as tharawad. The tharawad includes a woman, her siblings, her children, and her sister's children, with no affinal relations living within it.
• The southern zone also has a system similar to the northern system, known by various names like Bedagu, Dedag, or Bali in Karnataka, Keri in Nilgiris, Kilai in Kotai Vellals, Gotta in Koyas, and Gunpu in Kurubas. This system is based on exogamous clans, which are further divided into smaller circles of endogamous units. Village exogamy, commonly observed in the northern zone, is not as widely practiced in the south, where intermarrying clans within the same village are more common.
• The southern kinship system is distinct from the northern system in several ways. For instance, preferential marriages with close relatives like elder sister's daughter, father's sister's daughter, and mother's brother's daughter are more prevalent in the south. This practice aims to maintain solidarity within the clan and uphold the principle of the exchange of daughters in the same generation. However, certain taboos exist, such as marrying the younger sister's daughter, levirate, and mother's sister's daughter.
• Maternal uncle and niece marriages, as well as cross-cousin marriages, result in double relationships, where a cousin assumes more of a spousal role after marriage. The southern kinship system does not differentiate clearly between the family of birth and the family of marriage, unlike the northern system. Terms for blood relatives and affinal ones often overlap, and there is no clear distinction between extended families of birth and marriage.
• The southern kinship system arranges relatives according to their age, rather than their generational status. Dravidian languages do not have terms for brothers and sisters, but they do have words for older and younger siblings. Age, rather than generation, is the primary factor in determining kinship in the south, with marriages occurring outside the exogamous kin group known as Balli, Begadu, or Kilai. The exchange of daughters is favored, and close-kin marriages are also preferred.

In summary, the southern kinship system in India is characterized by:

• The principle of immediate exchange.
• A policy of social consolidation.
• A clustering of kin groups in a narrow area.
• No sharp distinction between kin by blood and kin by marriage.
• Greater freedom for women in society.

Kinship in Eastern Zone

The Eastern zone of India is geographically diverse and includes a range of communities such as Korku, Assamese, Saka, Seng, and Khasi, who speak various languages like Mundari, Mon Khmer, and others. The region is home to several Austro Asiatic tribes, making the kinship systems in this area quite diverse.

• Mundari-speaking communities follow both patrilineal and matrilineal families, with some tribes like Ho and Santhal practicing cross-cousin marriages. However, these marriages cannot take place until the sister or mother's brother has passed away. Sexual relationships and marriages among these communities do not always follow the same norms, and they are divided into exogamous totemistic clans. Members must marry outside their clan and avoid close relations like first cousins.
• Bride price is common in these communities, and the husband often provides service in the bride's father's house as a form of payment. After marriage, the couple establishes a separate household, sometimes including younger siblings and widowed parents. This differs from the joint family system found in other parts of India.
• The Khasi community in Assam speaks the Mon Khmer language and follows a matrilineal system similar to the Nayars. However, unlike the Nayars, Khasi couples live together in their own house within a joint family system, with shared worship and graveyard. Property is inherited by the mother or youngest daughter, while a widow receives half the property if she chooses not to remarry. Khasi husbands are considered strangers within their wife's family, and women have a significant amount of freedom, including custody of children in the event of divorce. Clan exogamy is practiced among the Khasis, and marriages between parallel and cross-cousins are rare.
• In conclusion, the kinship systems in the Eastern zone of India are complex and diverse, with both rigidity and flexibility in values and norms. This can be seen in aspects such as divorce, widow remarriage, incest taboos, caste endogamy, clan exogamy, family structure, lineage systems, residence, authority, inheritance, and more. Despite the complexities, kinship remains a fundamental principle of social organization and mobilization, as well as a source of division and conflict. Understanding these kinship systems is essential for grasping the social dynamics within various communities in the Eastern zone of India.

Conclusion

The kinship systems in India are diverse and complex, reflecting the rich cultural heritage of the country. These systems vary across the northern, central, southern, and eastern zones, with different rules of descent, residence, and inheritance in each area. The kinship systems play a crucial role in social, economic, and political spheres, and understanding these systems is essential for grasping the social dynamics within various communities in India. Despite the complexities, kinship remains a fundamental principle of social organization and mobilization, as well as a source of division and conflict.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Lineage & Descent in India

What are the main systems of tracing lineage in India?

The main systems of tracing lineage in India are patrilineal descent, where lineage is traced through the father's line, and matrilineal descent, where lineage is traced through the mother's line. There are also cognatic communities that have bilateral tendencies, considering both the mother's and father's lines in tracing their descent.

What is the difference between a nuclear family and an extended family in India?

A nuclear family consists of a married couple and their children, while an extended family is a larger group composed of two or more generations of lineally related members, their spouses, and children. Most nuclear families eventually grow into extended families and may later break up into incomplete extended families or nuclear families.

What are the key features of kinship in North India?

In North India, the basic kinship groups are patrilineage (Kula/Vansha), Gotra, and Jati (caste). A man is not expected to marry within the Gotra of his father, mother, father's mother, and mother's mother. The four basic features of kinship in North India are territoriality, genealogy, incest taboos, and local exogamy.

How does the kinship system in South India differ from that in North India?

The southern kinship system is distinct from the northern system in several ways, such as preferential marriages with close relatives like elder sister's daughter, father's sister's daughter, and mother's brother's daughter. Age, rather than generation, is the primary factor in determining kinship in the south. Furthermore, the southern kinship system does not differentiate clearly between the family of birth and the family of marriage.

What are some characteristics of the kinship systems in the Eastern zone of India?

The kinship systems in the Eastern zone of India are complex and diverse, with both patrilineal and matrilineal families present. Practices like cross-cousin marriages, bride price, and the establishment of separate households after marriage differ from the joint family systems found in other parts of India. Kinship systems in this area may include rigidity and flexibility in values and norms, such as divorce, widow remarriage, incest taboos, caste endogamy, clan exogamy, family structure, lineage systems, residence, authority, and inheritance.