Literature: Alberuni’s India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Alberuni (c. 972-1048): A Persian Scholar and Indologist

• Alberuni was a Persian scholar from the Khwarezm region, and spent a significant part of his life in Ghazni, modern-day Afghanistan, which was the capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty.
• He was the first prominent Muslim Indologist and one of the greatest intellectuals of the eleventh century.
• Alberuni accompanied the invading forces of Mahmud of Ghazni to the Indo-Gangetic valley as a freelance observer in the 11th century.
• A polymath with encyclopedic knowledge, Alberuni's interests spanned various fields such as astronomy, geography, physics, logic, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, religion, and theology.
• He was also a distinguished historian and chronologist, attempting to combine Greek wisdom with Islamic thought.
• Some scholars even regard him as the first anthropologist due to his keen observations of Indian society and culture.
• In 1017, he traveled to the Indian subcontinent, where he extensively studied the language, religion, and philosophy of the Hindus. He documented his findings in Arabic in a work titled Tarikh-ul Hind(History of India).
• Alberuni is considered the founder of Indology and was known for his impartial writing on the customs and beliefs of various nations. Most of his works were written in Arabic.

Mahmud Ghazni’s policy helped Al-Biruni 

• Mahmud’s policy towards science and scholarship significantly influenced Biruni’s understanding of Indian society.
• The promotion of scholarship was crucial for rulers during that period.
• Having poets and scholars at the sultan’s court enhanced his prestige and reputation.
• These writers helped shape a positive image of the sultans.
• Maintaining a court filled with scholars and artists was a sign of prosperity and power, reinforcing the ruler’s authority over dependent dynasties and in relation to the Caliphate.
• Mahmud actively encouraged scholarship by attracting notable figures like Biruni, the poet Firdawsi, and the physician Ibn Sina, although Ibn Sina declined the invitation.
• Mahmud also required individuals proficient in Indian languages for his military campaigns and negotiations in India.
• It is likely that Indian pandits and texts were brought to Ghazna or Kabul, where Biruni spent time, supporting the idea of his diverse sources of information.
• The Kitab al-Hind indicates that Biruni was well-versed in various aspects of Sanskrit literature.

Kitab ul Hind or Tarikh-ul Hind 

• Authorship and Background: Alberuni, an Arabian scholar, wrote the Kitab ul Hind (Tarikh-ul Hind) based on his observations in India between 1017 and 1030 during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Content and Structure: The book is divided into 80 chapters covering various aspects of Indian life, including religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, customs, social life, laws, and metrology. Each chapter starts with a question, followed by a description based on Sanskrit traditions, and ends with a comparison to other cultures.
• Use of Sanskrit Literature: Alberuni extensively quotes from Sanskrit texts such as the Patanjali, Gita, Puranas, and Samkhya philosophy, demonstrating his deep engagement with Hindu literature.
• Objective Analysis: His approach is characterized by a scientific and unbiased perspective, avoiding religious prejudices. He critically examines Indian customs, social order, and the impact of tradition on intellectual pursuits.
• Critical Assessment: Alberuni points out weaknesses in the Indian character and socio-political order, attributing the decline of Indian science to the arrogance of the Brahmans and the decline of the scientific spirit due to over-reliance on tradition.
• Research Methodology: He learned Sanskrit to access Hindu texts firsthand and used both written and oral sources in his research, emphasizing the importance of careful source examination.
• Translations and Contributions: Alberuni translated several Sanskrit texts into Arabic, such as the Kitab Sank, Kitab Patanjal, and others, contributing to the preservation and dissemination of Indian knowledge.
• Non-partisanship: Despite his association with Mahmud Ghazni, Alberuni condemned the destructive activities of the invaders and maintained objectivity in his accounts.
• Legacy: The Kitab ul Hind is considered a crucial primary source for understanding the socio-religious conditions of India during Mahmud of Ghazni's time and provides valuable insights into Indian sciences, religion, and society from an outsider's perspective.

Motives of writing Kitab Tarikh Al-Hind 

Al-Biruni's Approach and Objectives:

• Al-Biruni aims to present a clear historical record of facts without engaging in debates to refute opposing arguments.
• He intends to offer a straightforward account of Hindu theories while drawing comparisons with similar Greek theories to highlight their relationships.

Sources and Texts Studied:

• His research involved a thorough examination of major Indian religious and astronomical texts, including the Gita, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Vedas.
• He also explored scientific works by figures like Nagarjuna and Aryabhata, weaving in stories from Indian mythology to support his points.

Motivation and Curiosity:

• Al-Biruni was driven by scientific and intellectual curiosity, seeking to understand the various factors that shaped Indian thought processes.

Analysis of Hindu-Muslim Relations:

• He provided insights into the reasons behind Hindu animosity towards Muslims, highlighting the stark differences between Hinduism and Islam.
• Al-Biruni noted the historical context of 11th century India, marked by destructive attacks on Hindu cities and the enslavement of many Hindus by Islamic armies, fostering suspicion towards all foreigners, particularly Muslims.
• Hindus, perceiving Muslims as violent and impure, were reluctant to share anything with them.

Understanding Hindu Culture and Society:

• Despite the challenges of studying a new culture in a less than welcoming environment, Al-Biruni aimed to foster friendly relations between Hinduism and Islam.
• He wrote his work on India to equip Muslims with essential facts for engaging in conversations with Hindus on topics of religion, science, and literature.
• Al-Biruni believed that dialogue with Hindus was crucial for clarifying intricate subjects that could be better understood through increased interaction between the two cultures.
• Distinguished in the Muslim world, Al-Biruni's interest in other religious traditions surpassed the prevalent view of Hindus as heretics, demonstrating a deeper understanding despite apparent idolatrous practices.

Building Connections and Learning:

• Over time, he gained the acceptance of Hindu scholars, collecting books and studying with them to become proficient in Sanskrit.
• Through this process, he aimed to uncover and translate into Arabic various fields of knowledge, including mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy, and arts as practiced in 11th century India.

Comparative Religion Studies:

• Al-Biruni's writing also served the purpose of comparing religions such as Islam and Hinduism.
• He drew parallels between Indian thought and Greek philosophy, referencing thinkers like Socrates, Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, and occasionally with Sufi teachings.

Empathy with Indians:

• Some scholars suggest that Al-Biruni's writing was motivated by empathy towards Indians, recognizing their shared suffering under Mahmud Ghazani, similar to his own countrymen.

Historical Perspective:

• He viewed history as the unfolding of God's divine plan through prophets.

Pursuit of Truth:

• Al-Biruni believed that both sciences and the recording of history were endeavors aimed at uncovering truth.

Indian society 

Alberuni’s Observation of Indian Society

• Caste-ridden Society: Alberuni noticed the caste structure of Indian society in his work Kitab al-Hind.
• Chatuh-varna system: He described the origin of the four varna system based on the Purusha-Sukta hymns, detailing the creation of Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras from different parts of Brahma's body.
• Brahmanas were created from Brahma's head, Kshatriyas from his shoulders and hands, Vaishyas from his thigh, and Sudras from his feet.
• The four castes must eat separately and cannot share food, emphasizing strict dietary rules.
• Antyaja: Alberuni listed eight antyaja castes below the Sudras, each associated with specific crafts such as shoemaking, juggling, basket making, and others.
• Untouchables: He mentioned untouchable castes like Bhodhatu,Bhedas,Chandala,Doma, and Hodi, who were considered outcasts due to their occupations and lineage.
• Attaining moksha: Alberuni noted differing opinions among Hindus regarding which castes could attain moksha, with some believing only Brahmanas and Kshatriyas could achieve it.
• However, he reported that Hindu philosophers believed moksha was attainable by all castes and the entire human race.
• Comparison with other societies: Alberuni compared the caste system in India with social categories in ancient Persia, emphasizing that social divisions were not unique to India.
• He also highlighted the concept of equality within Islam, where all men were considered equal regardless of their background.
• Absence of significant differences between the Vaishyas and the Sudras: Alberuni observed that the Vaishyas were increasingly being treated like Sudras, with little distinction between the two groups.
• By the 11th century, Vaishyas and Sudras lived together and mixed socially, indicating a blurring of caste boundaries.
• Alliance between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas: Alberuni indirectly noted the alliance between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, suggesting a partnership of convenience.
• Closed Society: He remarked on the closed and static nature of Indian society, where traveling to distant places was frowned upon by Brahmins.
• Brahmanas had fixed living areas, and Hindus were generally prohibited from entering Turkish lands, reflecting a feudal localism.
• Alberuni also highlighted the insularity of Indians, who believed in their superiority and withheld knowledge from outsiders.
• He criticized the stagnation of knowledge during his visit, noting the rich past but lamenting the lack of logical order in contemporary Indian thought.
• Alberuni described the social evils of child marriage, sati, and the low status of women, particularly widows, in Indian society.
• He vividly portrayed Indian customs, manners, and festivals, some of which he found monstrous or amusing, such as the preservation of moustaches and the disposal of earthen plates.
• Despite the differences, he noted that these customs were integral to Indian identity.

Indian festivals 

Festival Observations by Alberuni:

• 2nd Chaitra: Noted as a significant Kashmiri festival.
• Guru Tritiya and Vasanta: Mentioned among other important festivals.
• Observation: Most festivals are primarily celebrated by women and children.

Religion and religious beliefs & practices 

Alberuni's Observations on Hindu Beliefs:

• He extensively quotes ancient texts like the Patanjali, Gita, Puranas, and Samkhya philosophy to discuss Hindu beliefs about God.
• Alberuni notes a difference between the educated and uneducated classes in their understanding of God. The educated class tries to grasp abstract ideas and define general principles, while the uneducated class follows derived rules without deep understanding.
• He finds many views on God held by the uneducated class to be objectionable but argues that similar errors can be found in other religions as well.
• Alberuni criticizes the belief in multiple gods as a sign of ignorance, stating that educated Hindus see God as one and eternal. He explains that Hindus consider God's existence as fundamental because everything exists through God.
• He summarizes the Hindu definition of God by quoting their term "Isvara," which means self-sufficient and benevolent. Hindus see unity as a collection of things and believe God's existence is real because everything exists through Him.
• He lists different Hindu opinions on philosophical concepts like action and agent. According to Hindus, spirits or souls are identical in nature but differ in individual character and behavior due to the different bodies they are associated with.
• Alberuni explores the Hindu concepts of paradise and hell in detail. He explains that Hindus see paradise as a higher state of bliss achieved through good deeds, while hell is a lower stage of punishment.
• He notes that Hindus believe in a variety of hells, each designated for specific sins, as mentioned in the Vishnu Purana. Hindus consider "swarloka"(paradise) as a reward for good deeds and the migration through plants and animals as a form of punishment.
• Alberuni draws an interesting comparison between Patanjali's definition of "Moksha"(liberation) and the Sufi concept of "knowing." Both traditions share the idea of an eternal soul and a human soul subject to change.
• He also discusses the Hindu belief in the transmigration of the soul, where every action in this life has consequences in the next, and final liberation is achievable through true knowledge. He criticizes these beliefs as narrow-minded.
• Having studied Hindu philosophy and institutions, Alberuni identifies the trinity of gods and the philosophy of the Upanishads without difficulty.
• He demonstrates familiarity with Samkhya philosophy and its explanation of the relationship between spirit and matter in his account of Indian views on the world's origin.
• Alberuni lists important Indian festivals, noting that many are celebrated primarily by women and children.

Indian Polity 

• Al-Biruni’s work was not focused on political events in India but still it gives some information about political events. 
• The animosity between the Muslim Turkish invaders and the Indians is for the first time attested in the record of Al-Biruni. He laments the widespread destruction caused due to invasions and the migration of the learned men to further east. 
• He accurately dates the conquest of Somnath by Sultan Mahmud, and also noted its exact location and the legend behind building of the temple. 
• Al-Biruni also records the history of the Hindushahi’s who faced the brunt of Mahmud’s invasion. 
• He mentions the dynasties of Kashmir, Kalchuris and even mentions Rajendra Chola. 

Science in India 

Alberuni's Study of Hindu Sciences:

• Alberuni was one of the first scholars to conduct a thorough study of Hindu sciences and literature.
• He was particularly impressed by Indian knowledge in astronomy, metrology, arithmetic, alchemy, and geography, as noted in his work Kitab al-Hind.
• While sometimes critical of Indian scientific knowledge, Alberuni also offered praise for certain aspects.

Astronomy:

• Alberuni observed that astronomy was highly popular among Indians due to its connection with religion. He noted that Indian astronomers were often also astrologers.
• He mentioned the works of various Indian astronomers, including Varaha Mihira, Brahmagupta, Aryabhatta I, and Aryabhatta II.
• Alberuni detailed the composition of the Earth and the heavens as described in Hindu sculptures.
• He discussed the planets, their motions, the twelve signs of the Zodiac, and the phases of the moon. Indian astronomers, he noted, divided the zodiac into 27 or 28 lunar stations or nakshatras.
• He acknowledged Indian knowledge of solar and lunar eclipses and methods for determining the time of an eclipse.
• Alberuni discussed various astronomical terms and concepts, comparing Indian and Greek astronomy.

Meteorology:

• In meteorology, Alberuni praised the Indian system of weights and measures, including units like Suvarna, tola, Masha, Yava, Kala, Pada, Kudava, Prastha, Adhaka, Dropa, and Surpa.
• He made interesting comparisons between Indian and Arabic systems of weights.

Arithmetic:

• Alberuni was interested in the Indian order of numbers and mentioned the eighteen orders of numbers found in Sanskrit literature.
• He quoted Brahmagupta on the science of numerical writing.

Chemistry:

• In chemistry, particularly in the context of alchemy, Alberuni referred to the efficacy of certain metals and chemicals for medicinal purposes.
• He mentioned three alchemists: Bhanuvasa, Nagarjuna, and Vvadi.
• Alberuni was also aware of Ayurveda and the Charak-Samhita, but not the Sushruta Samhita.

Mathematics:

• Alberuni noted the regional variations in numerical signs in India and acknowledged the Indian knowledge of the decimal system, the symbol for zero, and higher order numbers.
• He mentioned the value of pi(π) as per Brahmagupta and Aryabhatta.

Indian Alphabets:

• He observed the variations in Indian alphabets.

Criticism of Indian Science:

• Alberuni regarded Hindus as philosophers, mathematicians, and astrologers but considered his own knowledge superior.
• He criticized Indian knowledge of alchemy and identified it with witchcraft.
• Alberuni attributed the decline of Indian science to the arrogance and insularity of Brahmans.
• He condemned the hypocrisy of Brahmin scholars who misled the masses despite knowing scientific explanations.

Criticism of Indian Literature:

• Alberuni criticized the available literature on Hinduism as insufficient and misleading.
• He believed that Indian scribes carelessly corrupted documents while making copies.
• Despite his criticisms, he admired Hindu civilization and acknowledged their mental achievements.

Indian Legal system 

Understanding the Indian Legal System:

• He put in a lot of effort to grasp how the Indian legal system works.
• He carefully observes all the practical aspects of the legal system.
• He also highlights the differences between these practical aspects and the legal theories found in law books, such as the Manusmriti.

Geography 

Al-Biruni's Exploration of Indian Geography:

• Al-Biruni extensively utilizes the Puranic tradition to delve into Indian knowledge of geography.
• His travels allowed him to witness various geographic features firsthand, leading him to formulate theories about their interconnections.
• Madhyadesa: He starts with the Indian concept of Madhyadesa, referring to the area around Kannauj as the central part of the realm.
• Madhyadesa is highlighted as an important political center due to its historical significance as the residence of renowned heroes and kings.
• He notes the distances between Kannauj and various parts of the country, including Mathura, Prayaga (Allahabad), Banaras, Pataliputra, Kashmir, Ghazni, and others.
• Al-Biruni provides a detailed account of routes to Nepal, Tibet, Malwa, Gujarat, North Western India, and parts of Southern India.
• He makes references to the islands of South-East Asia and those in the Chinese Sea.
• An account of the Varshakala(monsoon season) in India is presented.
• He lists various rivers of India as mentioned in the Vayu-Purana and Matsya-Purana, along with the mythical Mount Meru, from where these rivers are said to flow.
• For instance, rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri are said to flow from the Sahya mountain, while rivers like Mahanadi, Narmada, and Chitrakuta flow from the Riksha mountain.
• By analyzing different types of soil particles in the Ganges River from its source to the Bay of Bengal, Al-Biruni proposed theories about erosion and the shaping of land forms, emphasizing the role of water in this process.
• He discovered fossils of ancient sea animals in the Himalayan Mountains, which once isolated India from the rest of the world.
• Al-Biruni reasoned that the Himalayas must have been submerged under the ocean at some point and later elevated to their current position over millions of years.

Limitations 

Barriers Faced by Al-Biruni in Understanding India:

• Language Barrier: Al-Biruni found Sanskrit to be very different from Arabic and Persian, making it hard to translate ideas accurately.
• Religious Differences: The varying religious beliefs and practices posed another challenge for him.
• Insularity of the Local Population: He noted that the local people were self-absorbed, which hindered understanding.
• Reliance on Brahmanas: Due to these barriers, Al-Biruni often relied on Brahmanical texts like the Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, and Manusmriti to understand Indian society.

Faulty Reading of Sources: Al-Biruni sometimes misunderstood original concepts due to his interpretation of Indian texts.

Neglecting Non-Sanskrit Texts: He primarily used Sanskrit texts and overlooked important Buddhist, Jaina, and other texts in languages like Prakrit and Pali.

• Limited Audience: His work was aimed at the upper castes, which limited its perspective on issues like the varna order from the viewpoint of lower classes.
• Indirect Observations: Much of his information was not based on direct observations. The exact details of his research, including the areas he covered and his sources, remain unclear.
• Lack of Specific Evidence: His work, the Kitab-al-Hind, lacks concrete evidence regarding his visits and the events he describes.
• Mobility Constraints: His travels were limited to the Ghaznavid empire, and he could not reach places like Kashmir and Varanasi.
• Detailed Knowledge of Kashmir: Despite not visiting Kashmir, he provided extensive information about its geography, culture, and customs, suggesting he obtained this data through other means.
• Information Sources: He gathered information through interactions, written documents, and scholarly exchanges, rather than direct observation.
• Extensive Written Sources: He had access to a wide range of written works, primarily through Brahmins and texts like the Vedas and Puranas.
• Comparison with Predecessors: Unlike earlier scholars who relied on observations and hearsay, Al-Biruni's work was based on a vast literature.