Literature: Literature in Sanskrit | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Sanskrit as a Medium for Higher Thought and Literature:

• Sanskrit remained a crucial language for profound ideas and literature during this period.
• After the great philosopher Sankara, thinkers like Ramanuja,Madhava, and Vallabha continued to write about Advaita philosophy in Sanskrit.
• Ramanuja wrote commentaries on the Brahma Sutras, explaining his views on Bhakti.
• Numerous texts on Yoga,Nyaya, and Vaisheshika philosophical systems were produced during this time.
• Deva Suri, a prominent Jain logician of the 12th century, contributed significantly to this intellectual landscape.
• Jayadeva's Gita-Govinda is a remarkable example of poetry from this era.

Growth of Schools and Academies:

• A network of specialized schools and academies thrived across the country, including areas under Muslim rule.
• These institutions were not interfered with and flourished, utilizing the introduction of paper to reproduce and spread older texts.
• Some of the oldest available texts of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata date back to the 11th or 12th century.
• Hindu rulers, especially those from Warangal and the Vijayanagara Empire, supported Sanskrit literature.
• Various works in poetry, drama, and philosophy were produced, with notable contributions from scholars and rulers like Hammir Deva,Kumbha Karna,Prataprudra Deva,Krisnadevaraya, and others.

Development of Hindu Law Commentary:

• Numerous commentaries and digests on Hindu law (Dharmashastras) were created between the 12th and 16th centuries.
• Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwar, a commentary on Yajnavalkya, became one of the two principal Hindu law schools.
• Dayabhaga by Jimuta Vahan set the foundation for the law of inheritance and partition in Bengal for centuries.
• Chandeshwar, a commentator from the 14th century, also contributed significantly to the Dharmashastras.
• Most works were produced in the south, followed by Bengal, Mithila, and western India, under the patronage of Hindu rulers.

Jain Contributions to Sanskrit Literature:

• The Jains also made significant contributions to Sanskrit literature.
• Naga Chandra, or Abhinava Pampa, authored the Pampa Ramayana.
• Other Jain writers included Hema Chandra,Prabha Chandra,Asadhara, and Sakalakriti, with Hemchandra Suri being the most prominent.
• Numerous dramas were penned during this period, including Harkeli Nataka and Lalitavigraharaja Nataka in the 12th century.
• Other notable dramas include Prasanna Raghava,Hammir mada-mardana,Pradyumnabhydaya,Pratap Rudra Kalyan, and Parvati Parinaya.
• Jiva Goswami authored around 25 books in Sanskrit.

Advancements in Astronomy and Historical Literature:

• Astronomy was advanced by Bhaskaracharya, born in 1114 A.D.
• Kalhana wrote the renowned Rajatarangini, chronicling the history of Kashmir, followed by Prithvirajavijaya and Hammiravijaya from the 12th century.
• Vidyaranaya penned the Rajakakinirnaya, detailing the history of Vijayanagar.
• Other significant writers include Padma Bhatta,Vidyapati Thakur, and Vachaspati Misra.
• Sayana produced notable commentaries on the Vedas, while Madhava composed the Siva-Gama Stotra.

Translation and Literary Insularity:

• There was minimal effort to translate Islamic or Persian literature into Sanskrit, with the exception of the translation of the love story of Yusuf and Zulaikha by the Persian poet Jami.
• This reflects the insular perspective of Hindus, as noted by Albiruni earlier.

Decline of Sanskrit

Decline of Sanskrit Literature and Rise of Regional Languages:

• Competition with Sanskrit as the language of literature increased with the Muslim conquests introducing Persian and the rise of vernaculars post CE 1000.
• The decline of Sanskrit literature began before the Delhi Sultanate, with 10th-11th century works lacking spontaneity and appealing only to a small Brahmanical circle.
• The replacement of Sanskrit by Persian as the official language during the Sultanate period accelerated this decline.
• With the loss of official patronage, many kingdoms promoted regional languages for administrative purposes, as Persian was unfamiliar in most regions.
• Regional languages were used alongside Sanskrit for administration even before the Turkish conquests.
• Under the Sultans of Delhi, there are records of local officials proficient in Hindi.
• The Turkish conquest in the 13th century diminished the Rajput-Brahman alliance, reducing Brahman influence and prestige.
• As upper caste dominance waned, Sanskrit's primacy declined, giving way to regional languages.
• The rise of non-Brahmanical and nathpanthi movements, along with various bhakti movements, significantly contributed to the growth of regional literature.
• Bhakti saints, especially from the conventional stream, translated or adapted epics, Puranas, and the Bhagavad Gita from Sanskrit into regional languages to make them accessible to the masses.
• This led to the popularization of bhakti episodes from Sanskrit texts by bhakti poets.

Works on Drama

In the drama of ancient India:

• Men from the upper classes spoke in Sanskrit, while those from the lower classes, including women, used various forms of Prākrit.

About Bhavabhuti:

• He was a Brahmaṇa from Vidarbha in southern India.
• Kalhaṇa mentioned him in Rajatarangiṇi as a poet in the court of Yasovaraman, king of Kanyakubja(Kanauj) in the 8th century CE.

Bhavabhuti's Works:

• He wrote three dramas:Malati-madhava,Mahaviracharita, and Uttararama-charita.
• Mahaviracharita depicts the early life of Rama and includes the character Mālyāvān, a minister of Rāvaṇa.
• Malati-madhava is his most popular work.
• Uttararama-charita is the second part of the biography of Rama.

Rajasekhara:

• A poet and dramatist in the court of Mahenderpala of Kanauj (893-907 CE).
• He wrote four dramas, including Balaramayana, which narrates the story of the Rāmāyaṇa, and others like Karpuramanjari,Viddhasala-bhanjika, and Balabharati.

Kshmisvara:

• A contemporary of Rajasekhara at the court of Mahipala of Kanauj (914 CE).
• He wrote two dramas,Naishadhananda and Chaṇḍakausika.
• Chaṇḍakausika depicts the story of king Hariśachandra and sage Visvamitra.

Bhattanarayaṇa:

• He wrote Veṇisanihara, a drama based on a story from the Mahabharata.

Murari:

• Author of Anargharaghava, a drama from the late 8th or early 9th century CE depicting a story from the Rāmāyaṇa.

Saktibhadra:

• A disciple of Sankaracharya(788-820 CE) from Kerala.
• He wrote Chudamani, depicting the story of Rama.

Damodaramisra:

• He wrote Mahanataka, a drama based on the Rāmāyaṇa.
• He was a court poet under king Bhoja of Malava, who resided at Dhara.
• Mahanataka has nine acts and is based on the Rāmāyaṇa.

Yasovarmana:

• He wrote Ramabhyudaya, another drama based on the story of Rama.

Dimnaga:

• He wrote Kundamala, a play from 1000 CE describing a story from the Rāmāyaṇa.

Vatsraja:

• A minister and feudal in the court of ruler Parmardideva (1163-1203 CE).
• He wrote six dramas, including Kiratarjuniya,Rukminiharana,Tripuradaha,Samudramanthana,Karpūracharita, and Hasyachudamani.

Bilhaṇa:

• He wrote Karanasundari in the 11th century CE.
• The drama features the Chalukya prince Aṇhilavaḍ Karṇa.
• It was performed in the temple of Santinatha during the festival of Jina Rishabha.

Krishṇamisra:

• He wrote Prabodha-chandrodaya, or "Rise of the Moon of Knowledge", in the later half of the 11th century CE.
• The play was written for king Kirtivarmana of Chandela (1050-1116 CE).

Jayadeva:

• Author of Prasanna-raghava, a naṭaka describing the life of Rāma.
• He was a resident of Berar in the 12th century CE.
• This Jayadeva is different from the famous writer of Gītagobinda.

Kshemendra:

• Of the 11th century CE, he wrote a play named Chitrabharata.

Ramachandra:

• A Jaina dramatist and pupil of Hemachandra.
• His two plays,Nalavilasa and Nirbhayabhima, are available.

Lyric Poetry Poetry 

• Amarusataka or "Hundred Stanzas of Amaru" was written by Amaru, a renowned poet of love and sexual joy.
• Ānandavardhana, a notable thinker on poetry from around 850 CE, references Amaru's work, highlighting its significance.
• Amarusataka is praised for its refined portrayal of love and sexual joy, offering a vivid and intricate picture of these themes.
• Kuttanimata, composed by Damodaragupta, a minister in King Jayapida's court in Kashmir, is a compelling short poem. It is considered a representation of Harsha's Ratnavali.
• Bhallata-sataka, written by Bhallata under King Samkarvarman of Kashmir in the ninth century CE, consists of a hundred stanzas in various metres. Bhallata was a contemporary of Ānandavardhana.
• Anandavardhana, a renowned rhetorician in the ninth century CE, authored Devisataka, a collection of ornate stanzas dedicated to goddess Bhavani.
• The Chaurapanchasika or "Fifty Stanzas of the Thief" by Bilhaṇa, a Kashmiri poet from the later 11th century, is a lyric poem depicting various love scenes in a simple style.
• Bilhaṇa, according to tradition, fell in love with a princess, and when this was discovered, he faced a death sentence. To save his life and marry the princess, he composed fifty stanzas that pleased the king.
• In the 18th century CE,Bharatachandra, a Bengali poet, drew inspiration from Bilhaṇa's work for his popular poem Vidyasundra.
• Govardhana, a contemporary of the famous author Jayadeva, wrote Aryasaptaaati, a poem with seven hundred erotic stanzas. Although less popular, Govardhana's work influenced poet Bihari Lala, who composed Satsai in Hindi.
• Jayadeva, in the 12th century CE at the court of King Lakshmaṇasena of Bengal, produced Gitagobinda, a poem representing the transition between pure lyric and pure drama. It is highly regarded in Sanskrit lyric poetry, and Jayadeva is celebrated as a master of poetry.
• Dhoyi, a contemporary of Jayadeva and also under King Lakshmaṇasena, wrote Pawanduta, imitating the Meghaduta.
• Sarvajnamitra, an 8th-century Buddhist, composed Sragdhrastotra, a 37-stanza dedication to the Buddhist goddess Tara.
• In the 11th century CE,Lilasuka wrote Krishṇakarṇamrita,"Nectar for Krishna's Ears."

Prose Literature

After the sixth century CE, numerous books were written in prose, which can be categorized into two main types: fable and romance.

Prose
Romance:

• Akhaika(Historical basis)
• Katha(Purely Poetic Creation)

Fable

• Popular Tales
• Beast fable
• Fairy tales:
  • Buddhistic
  • Non-Buddhistic

Fables underwent several stages of evolution as a form of literature. Stories or tales served as sources of entertainment or amusement.

• Following short stories, there emerged longer, more elaborate, and artificially narrated stories in the works of great masters like Daṇḍin,Baṇa, and Vasavadatta.
• These romances were either based on historical facts or purely imaginary.
• After Baṇabhatta, there was a period of about four centuries from the seventh century to the tenth century CE when proper Gadya-Kavya was not produced. During this time, work was done in classical epics rather than prose.

Ananda composed the Madhavanala-Kamakandala-Katha, likely in honor of Bhoja during his reign. This work belongs to the category of the most popular stories in India.

• Dhanapala(c.1000 CE), the son of Servadeva, wrote the Tilakamanjari, prose stories or romance, imitating Baṇa’s Kadambari.
• Dhanapala, influenced by his brother Sobhana, became a Jaina and served as a court-poet for King Bhoja of Dhara, aiming to impress the king with Jaina teachings.
• Vadibhasiṁha, another Digambara Jaina, wrote Gadya-Chintamaṇi in the eleventh or twelfth century CE, closely imitating Baṇa’s Kadambari.
• King Chittaraja patronized Soddhala(eleventh century CE), who wrote Udayasundarikatha(1025-50). However, none of the later authors produced works comparable to those of earlier figures like Bāṇa,Daṇḍin, and Subandhu.

Fables and fairy tales hold a significant place in the history of Indian literature. Old tales are reflected in the Jatakas and< strong>Avadana, serving as a treasure trove of political and practical wisdom.

Three Sanskrit versions of Guṇadhya’s Brihatkatha:

• One version, the Buddhasvamin’s Slokasamgraha(composed between the eighth and ninth century CE), has manuscripts from Nepal.
• The second version, Kashmiri Kshemendra’s Brihatkathamanjari, based on the story of Brihatkatha, was written around 1037 CE.
• Somadeva, a Brahmana of Kashmir, wrote the Kathasaritsagara(“ocean of streams of the stories”) between 1063 CE and 1081 CE. Kshemendra and Somadeva worked independently, but Somadeva provided more extensive narration than Kshemendra and Buddhasvamina.
• Trivikrambhatt’s Nalachampu(915 CE) and Somadeva’s Yasastilakachampu both praised Guṇadhya’s Brihatkatha.
• The Hitopadesa, another beast-fable literature written by Narayana Pandita in the eleventh century CE, was commissioned by Dhavala Chandra.

Historical Writings 

Although ancient Indian literature was rich, historical writings were not as robust as other forms of literature. Critics, including Alberuni, argued that Indians lacked a historical sense.

• During the great period of Sanskrit literature, there were very few writers who could be considered critical historians. Several factors contributed to this, including:
• Political conditions in India
• National sentiments
• Beliefs in Karma and destiny
• Views on the periodic creation and destruction of the world
• The Indian caste system
• Beliefs in magic and miracles

Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited India during the reign of King Harshavardhana in the 7th century CE, noted the presence of officials in each province responsible for maintaining written records of significant events, both good and bad.

• Recent critiques have challenged the older accusations against Indians, asserting that India did have historians and a sense of history.
• Kalhana, the author of the Raataraniṇi, is acknowledged for his historical sense. His work is a primary source for understanding the history of Kashmir and India in a systematic and modern manner.
• The roots of historical kavya can be traced back to gathas and prasastis (eulogies), which blend history, myth, legend, and imagination.
• Ramachandra, identifying himself as Kavisvara, composed prasastis in the 8th century CE, showcasing his linguistic prowess in a fourteen-stanza poem.
• A similar trend is seen in the 9th-century CE inscriptions of Lalitasuradeva.
• The Navasahasanka-charita by Padmagupta or Parimala is a significant historical kavya. As the court poet of Sindhuraja Navasahasanka of Malava, Padmagupta documented the history of his patron.
• Padmagupta is believed to have lived in the late 10th century CE, as mentioned by Bhoja, Kshemendra, and Vardhamāna.
• Sandhyakara Nandin’s Ramacharita(11th-12th century CE) narrates the story of Rama and the history of Ramapala of Bengal (c. 1084-1130 CE). Despite its historical value as a contemporary record, it falls short as a poetic composition.
• The Vikramankadeva-charita by the Kashmiri Bilhaṇa is a crucial historical work. Bilhaṇa, under the patronage of Vikramaditya VI (1076 – 1127 CE), a Chalukya King of Kalyana, glorified his patron in this work.
• Bilhaṇa, originally from Kashmir, traveled to Mathura, Kanauj, Prayāga, and Kaśi before reaching Vikramaditya VI's court. He was honored with the title of Vidyapati by his patron.
• In this work, Bilhaṇa outlines the origin of the Chalukya dynasty and provides an account of himself at the end.
• Although more of a poet than a historian, Bilhaṇa's works offer numerous historical facts and aid in constructing history.
• After Bilhaṇa, the Kashmiri Kalhana, flourishing in the mid-12th century CE, is considered one of the best Indian historians. He authored the Rajatarangiṇi, chronicling the Kings of Kashmir from the beginning to his own time.
• Hemachandra (1088-1172 CE), a Svetambara Jaina Acharya, wrote the Kumarapalacharita or Dvyāsrayaksvya in honor of his patron, the Chalukya king of Aṇhilvaḍa, Kumarapala. This work, composed in Sanskrit and Prākrit, showcases Hemachandra as a poet, historian, and grammarian.
• The Prithvirajavijaya, an anonymous historical poem from the late 12th century CE, probably from Kashmir, describes the victories of King Pṛithviraja of Ajmer, who defeated Mohammed Ghauri in 1191 CE.
• Minor Historical Kavyas include:
• Rājendra Karṇapura by Sanbhu (11th century CE), praising his patron Harsha, king of Kashmir (1089-1101 CE).
• Musikavamsa by Atula (11th century CE), detailing the kings of the Musika kingdom (South Travancore).
• Kirtikaumudi by Somesvara (1179-1262 CE), recounting the Vaghela dynasty of Gujarat.

Epics

• In the ninth century CE, Sivasvamina, a Kashmiri Buddhist during the reign of King Avantivarmana in Kashmir, composed the epic Kapphana-bhyudaya. This work draws inspiration from a story in the Avadana-sataka.
• Sivasvamina was significantly influenced by the poets Bharavi and Magha. He was a prolific author, known for his seven mahakavyas, numerous plays, songs, and over eleven hundred thousand hymns dedicated to Siva.

Ratnakara and Abhinanda:

• Another Kashmiri poet, Ratnakara, wrote the epic Haravijaya, which celebrates the Victory of Siva.
• Kashmiri poet Abhinanda composed Kadambari-kathasara in the ninth century CE, telling the story of Baṇa’s Kadambari. He acknowledged Rajasekhara as a contemporary.

Literature Under Pala King Dharmapala:

• In Bengal, under the patronage of Pala king Dharmapala, another poet named Abhinanda authored the Ramacharita.

Kshemendra and Mankha:

• In the eleventh century CE, Kashmiri writer Kshemendra wrote two significant epics, the Ramayaṇamanjari and Bharatamanjari.
• Kashmiri poet Maṅkha, a student of Ruyyaka in the twelfth century CE, wrote Śrikanthacharita, an epic in twenty-five cantos about the destruction of the demon Tripura by Śiva. This work, notable for its ornate style, was composed during a gathering of learned men under the patronage of the poet’s brother Alankara, a minister of Jayasimha of Kashmir(1127-1150 CE).

Sriharsha and Jain Writers:

• Sriharsha’s Naisadha-charita is considered a classic Kavya, likely written under Jayachandra of Kanauj in the late twelfth century CE. The central theme is the story of Nala and Damayanti, and the work is regarded as the fifth panchmahakavya. Sriharsha is traditionally placed alongside Kalidasa, Bharavi, and Magha.
• Among Jain writers, Jinasena composed the Harivansapuraṇa in the eighth century CE and Parshvabhyudaya in the ninth century CE. In the latter, he included the entire text of Kalidasa’s Meghduta while narrating the story of Pashravnatha.
• Kanakasena Vadiraja wrote Yasodharacharita in the early eleventh century CE, describing the life of King Yasodhara.
• Manikya Suri, a Svetambara Jain from Gujarat, wrote a work of the same name in the eleventh century CE. Tamil Jain Odayadeva Vadibhasimha composed the Kshtra-chudamaṇi in the eleventh century CE.
• Asaga authored Mahaviracharita in the tenth century CE, and Lolimbaraja wrote Harivilasa around 1100 CE, focusing on the Krishṇa legend.
• Hemachandra’s Trishashti-salakapurusa-charita, written between 1088 and 1172 CE, is a superior work that describes the lives of the twenty-four Jinas.

Champu Literature 

Champu Kavya is a type of poetry that combines prose and verse. It emerged in the tenth century CE and is characterized by the use of both forms together. This style flourished in Southern India, where scholars used it to express their knowledge and expertise.

• The Nalachampu by poet Trivikramabhatta, composed around 915 AD, is the most famous and earliest example of this style. It narrates the story of Nala.
• Madalasa-champu is another work by Trivikramabhatta, who was a court poet for the Rashtrakuta king Indra III.
• In the same century, the Jain scholar Somadeva Suri composed Yasastilakchampu around 959 CE during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.
• The Ramayana Champu, attributed to king Bhoja and Lashmaṇa Bhatta in the eleventh century CE, tells the story of Rama.

Grammar

Padamanjari Commentary by Haradyātta:

• Written in the twelfth century CE.
• Commentary on the Sutras of Paṇini.

Durgata-vritti by Saraṇadeva:

• Pen
  In 1172 CE.
• Focuses on challenging sections of Paṇini’s text.

Astadhyayi by Dharmakirti:

• Eleventh-century work by the Buddhist scholar.
• Reorganized Paṇini’s sutras thematically.

Pradipa by Kaiyata:

• Commentary on Patanjali’s Mahabhashya.
• Written in the eleventh century CE in Kashmir.

Bhasha-vṛitti by Purushottamadeva:

• Twelfth-century work.
• Vṛitti on Paṇini’s sutras.

Siddha-Hemachandra or Haima Vyakaraṇa by HemachandraSuri:

• Twelfth-century grammar of Prākrit and Sanskrit.
• Commissioned by King Jayasiṁha Siddharaja.
• Written in two versions: Laghvi and Brihati.
• Accompanied by Hemachandra's commentary.

Sarasvati Kaṇthabharaṇa by Bhojadeva:

• Extensive work on grammar.
• Written in the first half of the eleventh century CE by the Paramara king Bhojadeva of Dhara.

Lexicography

• Amarakosa by Amarsiṁha, composed before the seventh century CE, is the standard and most popular work in Sanskrit lexicography, with numerous later commentaries.
• Bhatta Kshirasvamin wrote the Amarakosadghatana commentary in the eleventh century CE.
• Subhutichandra, a Buddhist, authored the Kamadhenu between 1062-1172 CE, commenting on the Amarakosa.
• Purushottamadeva, also a Buddhist in the twelfth century CE, wrote the Trikaṇḍasesa, a supplement to the Amarakośa, and the small dictionary Haravali.
• The Abhidhana-ratnamala by Halayudha, around 950 CE, is a small dictionary. Halayudha is also linked to the Kavi rahasya, a grammatical work.
• Yadavaprakasa composed the Vaijayanti-kosa, identified with the preceptor of Ramanuja around 1050 CE, originally a follower of Sankara before converting to Vaishnavism.
• Hemachandra, a polymath from Gujarat born in 1088 CE, produced various works including Abhidhanachintamani-mala,Anekartha-samgraha, and Nighaṇtusesha. The first two deal with synonyms and homonyms, while the third is a botanical glossary. Hemachandra also commented on his works.
• Kesavasvamina, serving Chola king Rajaraja II, wrote Nanartharṇava-Samkshepa, one of the largest lexicons and the only Sanskrit lexicon criticizing preceding authors.
• King Bhoja of Dharā around 1050 CE wrote the Nama-malika, a small lexicon.

Astronomy, Astroloy and Mathematics

Astronomy:

• A commentator named Bhattotpala from the tenth century CE wrote about Aryabhatta’s Khaṇḍa-Khadyaka, which deals with Karaṇa, the eleven divisions of the day in Indian astrology.
• Lalla, in 748 CE, composed the Sishyadhi vriddhitantra. Although Bhaskara wrote a commentary on it, tradition suggests he was a pupil of Aryabhatta.
• In the eleventh century CE,Bhoja and Satananda emerged as notable writers.
• Bhoja authored the Rajamriganka, a work on karana, in 1042 CE.
• Satananda wrote the Bhasvati, a karaṇa work, in 1099 CE.
• Next in prominence is Bhaskaracharya(1150 CE), who penned the Siddhanta-Siromaṇi, his major work divided into four sections:
• Lilavati and Bijaganita focus on mathematics, while Grahaganita and Gola pertain to astronomy.
• The Gola section includes astronomical problems, a guide on astronomical instruments, and a description of seasons.
• His second work,Karana-kutuhala, was completed in 1178 CE.
• After Bhaskara, there was little advancement in Indian astronomy.

Astrology:

• Bhattopala, a renowned astrologer of the tenth century CE, authored the Hora-sastra.
• He also wrote a commentary around 966 CE on Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita.
• Ballalasena of Bengal initiated the Adbhutasagara treatise on astrology in 1168 CE, which was later completed by Lakshmaṇasena.
• The Samundratilaka astrology treatise began in 1160 CE under Kumarapala of Gujarat by Durlabharaja and was finished by his son Jagaddeva, who also wrote the Svapnachintamaṇi.

Mathematics:

• Mahaviracharya, a Jaina scholar during the reign of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha(814-878 CE), authored the Gaṇita-sara-samgraha, focusing on geometry.
• Sridhara, born in 991 CE, wrote the Trisati, which addresses quadratic equations in algebra.
• Significant mathematical contributions include the Lilavati and Bijagaṇita chapters of Siddhanta-siromaṇī by Bhaskaracharya.
• Brahmagupta(7th century),Mahavira(9th century), and Bhaskara(12th century) are celebrated mathematicians in India.

Medicine

• Nagarjuna near Somanatha wrote a great comprehensive work named the Rasaratnakara in the tenth century CE. 
• The earliest and most authoritative treatise on Patholo is Madhavakara’s Madhavanidana in ninth century CE. 
• In the eighth or ninth century, Dridhabala was a Kashmiri, who revised the present text of Charaka. 
• Chakrapaṇidatta of Bengal, known as a commentator of Susruta, was a successful medicinal author in the eleventh century CE. 
• He wrote commentaries named Ayurveda-dipika and Bhanumati respectively on Charaka and Susruta. 
• He wrote one Chikitsasara-Samgraha a great work on Therapeutics about 1060 CE. 
• Bhoja wrote a Salihotra in the eleventh century CE. 
• It gives information about the horses, their disease and remedies. 
• Suresvara, the court physician of king Bhimapala of Bengal wrote the Sabdapradipa, a dictionary of medical Botany in 1075 CE. 

Works on erotics

Padamasri and the Nagara-sarvasva:

• Padamasri, likely a Buddhist scholar from the tenth century CE, authored a work titled Nagara-sarvasva.

Jyotirisvara Kavisekhara and the Panchasayaka:

• From Mithila in the twelfth century CE,Jyotirisvara Kavisekhara wrote the Panchasayaka.
• The work is split into five chapters, known as sāyakas, which are inspired by the five arrows of the Love-god from Indian mythology.

Koka Pandit and the Ratirahasya:

• Koka Pandit composed the Ratirahasya or Kokasastra before the twelfth century CE.
• In this work, the author claims to have gathered the teachings of Vatsyayana.

Works on law

Numerous Commentaries on Manusmriti:

• Many commentaries have been written on the Manusmriti, a key text in Hindu law and ethics.
• Medatithi, who lived between 823-900 CE, wrote a commentary called the Manubhashya.
• Gobindaraja, flourishing between 1080-1140 CE, authored a commentary on the Manusmriti and the Smriti Manjari, covering all major topics of Dharmasastra.

Commentaries on Yajnavalkya-smriti:

• Several commentaries exist on the Yajnavalkya-smriti, with the Mitakshara by Vijnanesvara being the most renowned.
• The Mitakshara became a standard work, widely accepted not only in the Deccan but also in Banaras and much of North India.
• Visvarupa(c. 800-850 CE) and Aparaka or Aparaditya(12th century CE) also wrote commentaries on the Yajnavalkya-smriti.
• Later scholars commented on the Mitakshara, particularly emphasizing women's rights to property.

Narada Smriti and Commentaries:

• The Narada Smriti is notable for being the first text to confine dharma to law in a strict sense.
• Asahaya wrote a commentary on the Narada Smriti in the 8th century CE, and Medhatithi referenced Asahaya in his works.
• Bhavadevabhatta, a scholar from Bengal who lived in the 11th or 12th century CE, was a minister under king Harivarmana of South Bengal and authored several important works on Dharmasastra.

The Digest of Law:

• From the 11th century CE, there was a shift towards writing digests instead of commentaries.
• These digests were often composed at the behest of kings and were authored by jurists, ministers, and similar figures, rather than being tied to a specific school of dharma like the Smritis.
• Smritikalpataru by Lakshmidhara, a minister under king Gobindachandra (1105-1143 CE) of Kanauj, is one of the oldest digests and includes religious, civil, criminal law, and law of procedure.
• In the 12th century CE,Halayudha wrote Brahmanasarvasa for king Lakshmanasena of Bengal, focusing on the daily duties of Brahmanas.
• Smritichandrika by Devaṇṇabhatta (c. 1200 CE) is another significant work in this field.
• Sankara frequently cites the Manusmriti in his work Vedanta Sutra-Bhashya.
• Dharesvara or king Bhoja of Dhara (11th century CE) also wrote on Dharmasastra and is mentioned by the Mitakshara.

Works on philosophy

Nyaya of Gautama:

• Vachaspati Misra was a prominent philosopher in the 9th century CE, known for his contributions to various branches of Indian philosophy, including Advaita, Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Mimamsa.
• He authored the Nyaya-varttika-taparyatika, a commentary on Uddyotakara's Nyayavarttika, and the Nyaya suchinibandha around 841 CE.
• Udayana, in the 10th century CE, gained fame in both the Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools.
• He wrote the Tattva-suddhi and the Kusumanjali, the latter addressing both Nyaya and Vaisheshika.
• Jayanta Bhatta composed the Nyaya-/manjari, a commentary on the Nyaya-sutra in the late 9th century CE.
• Gangesa Upadhyaya, the founder of the new Nyaya school (Navya-Nyaya) in the late 12th century CE, wrote the Tattva-chintamani, a key text of modern Nyaya.

Vaisehika of Kananda:

• Vyomasivacharya from the 10th century CE wrote the Vyomavati.
• The Nyaya-Kandali by Sridhara, dating to 991 CE, is notable for its early formulation of theism.
• Udayana's Lakshaṇavali, written in 984 CE, serves as a concise manual on Vaisheshika.
• Vallabhacharya's Nyaya-lilavati in the 11th century CE also contributes to Vaisheshika.
• Sivaditya's Saptapadārthi from the 11th century CE is another significant work on Vaisheshika and includes Nyaya theory.

Samkhya of Kapila:

• Tattva-kaumudi by Vachaspati Misra, a 9th-century CE scholar, is a renowned commentary on Samkhya philosophy.

• This work is highly regarded within the Samkhya school.

Yoga of Patanjali:

• Vyasa authored a commentary on the Yoga Sutra in the 4th century CE.

• Vachaspati composed a glossary on Vyasa's Bhashya called Tattvavaisaradi in the 9th century CE.

• Bhoja wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutra titled Rajamartanda in the 11th century CE.

Purvamimansa of Jaimini:

• Salikanatha wrote a commentary Rijuvimala in the 9th century CE.

• Maṇdana Misra, a follower of Kumarila, authored Vidhiviveka and Mimansanukramaṇi in the 9th century CE.

Uttarmimansa of Badarayaṇa

greatest thinker on monistic Vedanta is Sankaracharya (788-820 CE)

• He wrote many commentaries on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Vedanta-sutra.
• His most important work is the Sarirakabhashya, a commentary on the Vedantasutra.
• He also wrote the Gitabhashya, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, and other texts like Viveka Chudamani and Atmabodha.

Visishtadvaita of Ramanuja:

• Ramanuja, a Tamil Brahmana, was a prominent commentator on the Brahmasutras during the late 11th to early 12th century CE.
• He wrote the Sri Bhasya, a commentary on the Brahma-sutra.
• His other works include the Vedartha-samgraha, Vedanta-sara, Vedanta-dipa, Gita-bhashya (a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita), Gadya-traya, and Bhagavadaradhanakrama.

Nimbarka:

• Nimbarka, a Telugu Brahmana of Vaishnava faith, lived shortly after Ramanuja.
• He wrote the Vedanta-parijata-saurabha, a commentary on the Brahma-sutra.

Works on Arthasastra

The Nitisara of Kamandaka: A Key Political Treatise

• Considered the most important political treatise after Kautilya's Arthasastra.
• Written in verse with the style of a Kavya.
• While based on the Arthasastra, it is not merely a redaction.
• Attributed to around 700-750 CE, as mentioned by Vamana.

Nitivakyamṛita by Somadeva Suri:

• A Niti treatise from the tenth century CE.
• Somadeva was also the author of Yasastilaka-champu.
• The Nitivakyamṛita combines ethics and politics in short aphorisms.
• Unlike Kautilya's work, which focuses on artha, Nitivakyamṛita emphasizes both political wisdom and moral conduct.
• Aims to instruct rulers on state administration and achieving prominence in the inter-state circle.
• Somadeva's style is noted for its simplicity and clarity.

Hemachandra and the Laghuvar:

• Hemachandra, a Jaina scholar from 1088-1172 CE, wrote extensively on various subjects.
• The Laghuvar is a manual of politics for Jaina audiences.

The Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha-chintamaṇi:

• Attributed to King Somesvara of the Western Chalukya dynasty, son of Vikramaditya VI.
• Composed around 1131 CE.
• Discusses the qualifications of a king and provides concise information on royal policy.
• Takes on the character of an encyclopedia.

Nitisutras of Brihaspati:

• Written in short prose sentences, similar to other works from the sixth or seventh century CE.

Agni-puraṇa:

• Contains chapters on political topics.

King Bhoja of Dhara:

• From the Paramara dynasty in the eleventh century CE.
• Wrote Yuktikalpataru, a Niti text of lesser merit.
• Bhoja is known for his critical writings and fine taste in selection and commentary.

Literature on music

• Sangita-makaranda, written by Narada in the 11th century CE, explores music and dance in two distinct sections.
• The Manasollasa by Somesvara, dated around 1131 CE, includes verses on music and musical instruments.
• King Somesvara, son of Vikramaditya VI, is recognized as an authority on music, as noted in the introductory verses of the Sangitaratnakara.
• Jayadeva, a renowned poet-musician of the 12th century, composed the Gitagobinda and served in the court of King Lakshmana Sena in Bengal, where he was a devoted worshipper of Krishna.
• Sangitaratnakara, authored by Sarangadeva(1210-1247 CE), is the most comprehensive treatise on music. Sarangadeva, a Brahmana from Kashimira, lived in Daulatabad(Devagiri) under the patronage of Yadava king Singhana.
• The is a crucial work in Indian music, consisting of seven chapters covering musical notes,technical terms,melodies,measures of time,musical instruments,acting, and dancing.
• It is considered the first modern book on Indian music.
• Parsvadeva, a contemporary of Sarangadeva and author of the Sangita Samayasara, also addressed various aspects of music.