Mathura School of Arts | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Art and Literature in Ancient India

• During the time of the Kushan Empire, foreign princes became passionate supporters of Indian art and literature, displaying a fervor typical of recent converts to a new belief. The Kushan Empire united craftsmen and artisans from various regions, leading to the emergence of distinct schools of art, including Central Asian, Gandhara, and Mathura.
• Artistic pieces from Central Asia reflect a blend of local and Indian elements, heavily influenced by Buddhism.
• In the same era, remarkable works of art were produced in various locations south of the Vindhyas. Stunning Buddhist caves were carved out of rock in Maharashtra. In Andhra Pradesh, places like Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati emerged as prominent centers of Buddhist art, featuring numerous panels depicting stories associated with the Buddha.
• The earliest Buddhist panels can be found at Bodh-Gaya, Sanchi, and Bharhut, dating back to the second century BCE. However, significant advancements in sculpture occurred during the early centuries of the Christian era.

Mathura School of Arts

The Mathura School of Arts, based in modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India, emerged around the first century A.D. and represents a significant phase in the development of Buddhist art. This school is known for its distinctive style that evolved from indigenous traditions and reached its peak during the Gupta period (A.D. 325 to 600).

Period and Center of Production

• The Mathura School of Art is characterized as a purely indigenous style, developing primarily during the post-Maurya period, especially during the Shunga period, and reaching its zenith during the Gupta period. The early centuries of the Christian era marked the flourishing of this school, with Mathura remaining the traditional center of art production. Other important centers that emerged include Sarnath and Kosambi.
• The materials used in this school, notably spotted red sandstone, contributed to the durability and distinctive appearance of the sculptures.

Evolution and Characteristics of Buddha Images

• In contrast to earlier representations in places like Sanchi, Barhut, or Gaya, where Buddha was symbolized by footprints or a wheel, the Mathura School saw the emergence of human images of Buddha. Initially, artisans from Mathura continued the Mauryan sculptural forms of Yaksha and Yakshi. However, over time, they developed a unique style that, while independent, was later influenced by the Gandhara School.
• The Buddha images from Mathura are typically dated slightly later than those from Gandhara. One notable difference is the portrayal of spiritual emotion in the faces of Buddha images from Mathura, which was largely absent in Gandharan sculptures.

Iconography and Other Sculptures

• The Mathura School is also renowned for the headless erect statue of Kanishka, with his name inscribed at the lower end, and for several stone images of Vardhamana Mahavira. Interestingly, pre-Gupta sculptures and inscriptions from Mathura do not depict Krishna, despite Mathura being considered his birthplace.
• In addition to Buddhist figures, the Mathura School produced images of Hindu deities such as Shiva and Vishnu, along with their consorts Parvati and Lakshmi. The school is also known for its beautifully carved female figures, including yakshinis and apsaras.
• Overall, the Mathura School of Arts is celebrated for its spiritual depth, indigenous craftsmanship, and the significant role it played in the evolution of early Indian art, particularly in the representation of religious figures and deities.

Types of Sculpture in the Mathura School of Art

The Mathura School of Art is renowned for its dynamic and integrative approach, reflecting the religious fervor of Brahmanism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Its themes range from Buddhist to Brahmanical and even secular, with the school being instrumental in defining several Brahmanical deities.

Brahmanical Images

• Numerous Brahmanical sculptures have been discovered in Mathura.
• From up to 300 A.D., the earliest representations include Siva, Lakshmi, Surya, and Sankarshana (or Balarama).
• During the Kushana period, deities such as Karttikeya, Vishnu, Sarasvati, Kubera, and various Naga images were depicted in sculpture.
• Iconographical features that characterize each deity began to appear during this period. For instance, while Siva was represented in the form of a linga, the Chaturmukha linga (a linga with four human faces of Siva) started to be carved.
• The Surya of the Kushana age is depicted riding a chariot pulled by two horses, adorned in a heavy coat, salwar-like lower garment, boots, holding a sword in one hand and a lotus in the other.
• Balarama is shown with a heavy turban.
• Saraswati is depicted seated with a harp and manuscript, dressed simply without ornaments, accompanied by two other figures.
• Durga, in her Mahisha-mardini form, is shown as the slayer of the buffalo demon.

Jaina Specimens

• Mathura was a significant center for Jains, akin to its importance for Brahmanical and Buddhist followers.
• The site has yielded numerous inscriptions related to lay followers of Jainism, Jaina monks and nuns, and various donations and dedications made by them.
• For instance, as early as the middle of the second century B.C., an inscription (pasada-torana) by a Jaina Sravaka named Uttaradasaka was found.
• Kankali Tila emerged as the primary Jaina site in Mathura, producing a vast number of sculptures, including ayaqapatas or stone slabs featuring Jaina figures surrounded by auspicious marks or representations of Jaina Stupas (objects of worship), along with various architectural fragments like pillars, capitals, crossbars, and railing-posts.
• The representations of Jaina Tirthankaras on the ayaqapatas predate the Kushana period, but regular images became prevalent only from the Kushana period onwards.
• Among these, Parsvanatha is identifiable by his canopy of snake hoods, and Rishabhanatha by the locks of hair falling on his shoulders, while other Tirthankara images are less easily distinguishable.
• The Jina Image and the Indigenous style of Buddha images are notable features of Mathura art. The Sarvatobhadrika image of four Jain Jinas standing back to back is characteristic of the Mathura school.

Buddhist Images

• Buddhist images are found in greater numbers compared to those of other faiths.
• The earliest images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha were likely produced in Mathura and also sent to other regions. For example, the Samath image of a standing Bodhisattva, installed during the period of Kanishka-I, was made in Mathura.
• Buddha was depicted in a human form, with the main focus on Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Both sitting and standing postures of Buddha statues were carved in the Mathura school.
  Among the sitting idols, the one discovered at Katra is one of the oldest. This idol features:
  • Buddha seated under a Bodhi tree,
  • Right hand in abhaya posture,
  • Dharam chakra and tri-ratna engraved on the palms and the soles of the feet,
  • The head is shaven except for one lock of hair.
• The Buddha image from Mathura is modeled after earlier Yaksha images, whereas the Gandhara style incorporates Hellenistic features.
• The Standing Buddhas from Sravasti, Sarnath, and Kausambi are characteristic of the Mathura School.
• The sitting Buddha of the Mathura School is depicted in padmasana, with the soles of the feet adorned with Tri ratna and Dharmachakra symbols.
• The presence of two attendants beside the Buddha holding chauras (flywhisks) is a distinctive feature of the Mathura school and later inspired images of Indian deities.
• The art of Mathura often includes explicit sexual imagery. Female figures depicting bare breasts, nudity below the waist, and detailed representations of female genitalia are prevalent.

Some general characteristics of Buddha idols from this period include:

• Made of white spotted red stone,
• Fashioned in the round for visibility from all angles,
• Shaven head and face,
• Right hand in abhaya posture,
• No mark on the forehead,
• Tight-fitting dress with the left hand holding the frill.
• Numerous Yaksha and Yakshini images have been unearthed in Mathura, associated with Buddhism, Jainism, and Brahmanism.
• Kubera, another deity, is portrayed with a protruding belly, linked to wine and festivities, bearing resemblance to Roman and Greek gods of wine such as Bacchus and Dionysius.

Sculpture Features and Evolution

Mathura School of Art:

• The Mathura School of Art is characterized by a focus on inner beauty and facial emotions rather than bodily gestures. The early sculptors emphasized facial expressions and emotional depth, creating figures that conveyed a sense of inner spirituality.
• There was a boldness in carving large images, with the initial sculptors not aiming for anatomical accuracy but rather creating a composite of 32 major and 80 minor laksana marks to represent the Buddha.
• Over time, the Human Buddha images evolved to embody human beauty and heroic ideals. Early representations of the Buddha and Bodhisattva depicted fleshy figures with little spirituality, focusing more on physical presence than spiritual depth.
• The earliest standing Buddha images from the Mathura school feature a block-like compactness with a smooth, close-fitting robe, devoid of folds. The images project volume out of the picture plane, with round, smiling faces and a relaxed depiction of flesh. Garments are clearly visible, covering the left shoulder.
• By the second century AD, images became more sensual and flashier, with increased rotundness. However, by the third century AD, extreme fleshiness was reduced, and surface features became more refined. This trend continued into the fourth century AD, with the flesh becoming tighter and the halo around the Buddha's head becoming elaborately decorated.

Images of Rulers:

• The Mathura region produced large images of Kushana Kings and notable figures like Kanishka, Wima, and Chastana. The practice of building reliquaries or structures to house portrait-statues of rulers and dignitaries likely originated from Central Asia, aimed at granting these rulers a divine status.
• The dresses worn by the dignitaries also reflected Central Asian influence. Discoveries of Scythian dignitary heads in Mathura indicate the region's significance within the eastern Kushana empire and suggest interactions between Gandhara and Mathura art forms.
• Over time, Mathura art forms significantly contributed to the development of Gupta art forms.

Differences in Origin:

• Mathura School: Developed indigenously without foreign influence, although it later cross-fertilized with the Gandhara School.
• Gandhara School: Strongly influenced by Greek art, based on Greco-Roman norms and techniques, and known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of art. The Gandhara style assimilated traits from various traditions, including Achaemenian, Parthian, and Bactrian, into the local tradition.

Differences in Material Used:

• Mathura School: Primarily used spotted red sandstone.
• Gandhara School: Used blue-grey mica schist and grey sandstone. Other materials included mud, lime, stucco, while marble was not used. Terracotta was rarely used.

Differences in Image Features:

• Mathura School: Themes varied from Buddhist to Brahmanical to secular, including Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Jainism, Buddhism, Yakshas, and Yakshinis. Buddhist images were numerous, featuring both sitting and standing postures of the Buddha. The Mathura Buddha images were modeled on earlier Yaksha images. Early period images had light volume with fleshy bodies and little spirituality, while later period images saw a reduction in flashiness and refinement of surface features. The Buddha was depicted in various mudras, with less attention to detailed sculpting and often stout figures.
• Gandhara School: Focused on finer details and realistic images, with great emphasis on the exact depiction of body parts. The theme was primarily Buddhist, depicting various stories from the life of the Buddha. The Gandhara Buddha images resembled the Greek God Apollo, with curly hair, anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening. There was more emphasis on bodily features and external beauty, with some Buddhas depicted as thin.

Differences in Halo:

• Mathura School: The halo around the Buddha's head was elaborately decorated, and the images were less expressive.
• Gandhara School: The halo was generally not decorated, and the images were highly expressive.

Despite these differences, both schools influenced each other, with many Mathura sculptures incorporating Hellenistic elements such as idealistic realism and key design features like curly hair and folded garments.