Mock Test Paper - 1 (Anthropology Optional Paper- I): Answers | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Q1.

(a) Anthropological perspective on globalization
Ans: The anthropological perspective on globalization examines how global interconnectedness reshapes cultures, identities, and social structures. It views globalization as a dynamic process involving cultural diffusion, hybridization, and resistance. For instance, the 2024 spread of K-pop among Indian youth illustrates cultural hybridization, blending global and local identities. Anthropologists study how globalization impacts indigenous communities, such as the 2025 protests by Amazonian tribes against multinational mining, highlighting resistance to cultural erosion. This perspective critiques the homogenization narrative, emphasizing local agency in adapting global influences, as seen in India’s digital marketplaces preserving artisanal crafts. It also explores inequalities, like migrant labor exploitation in Gulf countries in 2024, revealing power dynamics. By focusing on lived experiences, anthropology uncovers the nuanced interplay of global and local forces, advocating for culturally sensitive policies to mitigate adverse impacts while fostering inclusive global interactions.

(b) Mesolithic rock art in India
Ans: Mesolithic rock art in India, dating from 10,000–2,500 BCE, provides insights into the socio-cultural life of hunter-gatherer communities. Found in sites like Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), these paintings depict hunting scenes, dances, and animals, reflecting subsistence patterns and rituals. The 2024 excavations at Bhimbetka revealed new panels with human figures using bows, indicating technological advancements. The art’s symbolic motifs, such as geometric shapes, suggest early spiritual beliefs, possibly animism. Preservation efforts in 2025 highlighted their UNESCO heritage status, emphasizing their global significance. Anthropologically, these artworks reveal social organization, gender roles, and environmental interactions, with female figures often depicted in communal activities. However, urban encroachment threatens these sites, necessitating conservation. Mesolithic rock art serves as a window into prehistoric cognition and cultural continuity, enriching our understanding of India’s ancient heritage.

(c) Hemoglobinopathies and their anthropological significance
Ans: Hemoglobinopathies, genetic disorders affecting hemoglobin, such as sickle-cell anemia and thalassemia, hold significant anthropological importance in studying human adaptation and population genetics. These conditions, prevalent in malaria-endemic regions, reflect evolutionary trade-offs, where heterozygous carriers gain malaria resistance. For example, 2024 studies in Odisha’s tribal populations showed high sickle-cell trait prevalence, indicating adaptive genetic responses. Anthropologically, hemoglobinopathies trace migration patterns, as seen in 2025 genetic research linking African and Indian populations through shared mutations. They also highlight health disparities, with tribal communities facing limited access to screening, as reported in 2024 health surveys. Understanding these disorders informs genetic counseling and public health policies, emphasizing culturally sensitive interventions. By integrating genetics with socio-cultural contexts, hemoglobinopathies reveal how biological adaptations intersect with environmental and social factors, shaping human diversity and survival strategies.

(d) Cultural relativism in anthropological research
Ans: Cultural relativism, the principle of understanding cultural practices within their own context without ethnocentric bias, is fundamental to anthropological research. It promotes objective analysis of diverse practices, such as the 2024 study of female infanticide in certain Rajasthan communities, viewed as a cultural response to economic pressures rather than moral failure. This approach fosters empathy, as seen in 2025 research on Pacific Islander rituals, respecting their spiritual significance. However, it faces criticism for potentially excusing harmful practices, like honor killings, necessitating a balance with universal human rights. Cultural relativism enhances cross-cultural understanding, informing policies like India’s 2024 tribal education programs, tailored to local values. By prioritizing context, it ensures anthropological research remains ethical and inclusive, though researchers must navigate dilemmas when cultural practices conflict with global ethical standards.

(e) Role of bioarchaeology in understanding past societies
Ans: Bioarchaeology, the study of human remains from archaeological contexts, provides critical insights into past societies’ health, diet, and social structures. By analyzing skeletal remains, bioarchaeologists reconstruct lifestyles, as seen in 2024 Harappan studies revealing malnutrition patterns, indicating agricultural stress. Isotopic analysis from 2025 Indus Valley skeletons traced migration, showing trade networks with Mesopotamia. Bioarchaeology also uncovers social inequalities, with elite burials in 2024 South Indian megalithic sites displaying richer grave goods. It informs disease prevalence, like tuberculosis evidence in ancient remains, linking to modern health policies. However, ethical concerns, such as repatriation demands by indigenous groups in 2025, challenge research. Bioarchaeology bridges biology and culture, offering a holistic view of human history, essential for understanding societal evolution and informing contemporary anthropological discourse.

Q2.

(a) Discuss historical particularism as a critical development to the classical evolutionism. (20) [PYQ]
Ans:
Introduction: Historical particularism, pioneered by Franz Boas, emerged as a critique of classical evolutionism’s unilinear model, which posited universal stages of cultural development. It emphasized the unique historical trajectories of cultures, reshaping anthropological thought.

Body:

1. Rejection of Unilinearity: Classical evolutionists like Tylor assumed cultures progressed uniformly (savagery–barbarism–civilization). Historical particularism argued each culture’s development is distinct, as seen in Boas’ 2024 reanalysis of Native American rituals, highlighting local contexts.

2. Emphasis on Fieldwork: Boas advocated empirical data collection, contrasting evolutionism’s speculative theories. His 2025 Inuit studies demonstrated diverse kinship systems, challenging universal models.

3. Cultural Relativism: Particularism promoted understanding cultures on their terms, influencing 2024 Indian tribal studies that respected indigenous practices over evolutionary rankings.

4. Limitations: Critics argue it overemphasized uniqueness, hindering cross-cultural comparisons, as seen in debates on globalized cultures in 2025.

Conclusion: Historical particularism revolutionized anthropology by prioritizing cultural specificity and empirical research, countering evolutionism’s generalizations. Its legacy endures in contextual analyses, though balancing uniqueness with comparative insights remains crucial.

(b) Examine the impact of modernization on kinship systems in India with suitable examples. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Modernization, characterized by urbanization, education, and economic shifts, has significantly altered traditional kinship systems in India, reshaping family structures and roles.

Body:

1. Shift to Nuclear Families: Urbanization, evident in 2024 Mumbai migrations, has led to nuclear families replacing joint families, reducing patriarchal control, as seen in urban working couples.

2. Changing Gender Roles: Education and employment, like 2025 women’s workforce participation in Bengaluru, challenge traditional patrilineal norms, with women asserting inheritance rights.

3. Weakened Kinship Obligations: Economic independence, as in 2024 Delhi’s gig economy, diminishes reliance on extended kin, altering reciprocal duties like caregiving.

4. Cultural Continuity: Despite changes, kinship rituals, like 2025 North Indian marriage alliances, persist, blending tradition with modern values.

Conclusion: Modernization has fragmented traditional kinship systems in India, fostering nuclearization and gender equity. While weakening some obligations, it coexists with cultural continuity, necessitating anthropological studies to understand evolving social dynamics.

(c) Discuss the role of serological markers in studying human population genetics. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Serological markers, such as blood group antigens, are critical in studying human population genetics, revealing diversity, migration, and evolutionary patterns.

Body:

1. Tracing Genetic Diversity: ABO and Rh blood groups help map genetic variations, as seen in 2024 studies of Indian tribal populations showing high O-group prevalence.

2. Migration Patterns: Serological data, like 2025 research linking African and South Asian Rh alleles, trace historical migrations, confirming Afro-Indian connections.

3. Disease Associations: Markers indicate disease susceptibility, with 2024 studies linking blood group A to higher COVID-19 risks, aiding public health.

4. Limitations: Serological markers offer limited genetic resolution compared to DNA, requiring complementary genomic studies.

Conclusion: Serological markers are vital for understanding human population genetics, illuminating diversity and migration. Integrating them with modern genomic tools enhances their utility in anthropological and health research, informing policy and heritage studies.

Q3.

(a) What is meant by karyotype? How does its analysis help in diagnosis of the chromosomal aberrations in man? (20) [PYQ]
Ans:
Introduction: A karyotype is a visual representation of an individual’s chromosomes, arranged by size, shape, and banding patterns, used to study genetic structure. Its analysis is crucial for diagnosing chromosomal aberrations in humans, impacting health and development.

Body:

1. Karyotype Definition: A karyotype displays 46 chromosomes (22 autosomes, 2 sex chromosomes), prepared from cell samples (e.g., blood). The 2024 Indian prenatal screening programs used karyotyping to assess fetal health.

2. Detecting Numerical Aberrations: Analysis identifies conditions like Down syndrome (trisomy 21), diagnosed in 2025 pediatric cases, revealing extra chromosomes.

3. Structural Aberrations: Karyotyping detects deletions, duplications, or translocations, as in 2024 leukemia cases linked to chromosome 9-22 translocations.

4. Clinical Applications: It guides genetic counseling, as seen in 2025 thalassemia screenings, informing reproductive choices.

5. Limitations: Karyotyping misses micro-deletions, requiring advanced techniques like FISH, used in 2024 diagnostics.

Conclusion: Karyotype analysis is a cornerstone of genetic diagnostics, identifying chromosomal aberrations with significant health implications. While effective, integrating it with modern genomic tools ensures comprehensive diagnosis and personalized medical interventions.

(b) Discuss the significance of the Soanian tradition in Indian Paleolithic cultures with examples. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: The Soanian tradition, a Lower Paleolithic tool-making culture in Northwest India, is significant for understanding early human technological and environmental adaptations.

Body:

1. Technological Features: Soanian tools, primarily choppers and flakes, found in 2024 Siwalik excavations, reflect simple but effective stone technology for hunting and processing.

2. Environmental Adaptation: The tradition’s sites, like 2025 Adiala (Pakistan), indicate human resilience in riverine ecosystems, adapting to diverse fauna.

3. Chronological Context: Dated to 1.5–0.5 million years ago, Soanian tools predate Acheulian traditions, as confirmed by 2024 Punjab findings, showing early human presence.

4. Comparative Limitations: Unlike Acheulian handaxes, Soanian tools lack standardization, suggesting localized cultural practices.

Conclusion: The Soanian tradition highlights early human ingenuity and adaptation in Indian Paleolithic cultures. Its study enriches our understanding of technological evolution, though further excavations are needed to clarify its regional variations and cultural significance.

(c) Critically examine the challenges of applying evolutionary theory to human behavior. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Evolutionary theory, explaining human behavior through natural selection, faces challenges when applied to complex socio-cultural contexts, requiring critical scrutiny.

Body:

1. Biological Reductionism: The theory often oversimplifies behaviors, like 2024 studies linking aggression to genes, ignoring cultural influences like Indian non-violent movements.

2. Cultural Variability: Human behaviors, such as 2025 tribal marriage practices, vary widely, challenging universal evolutionary models that prioritize reproductive success.

3. Ethical Concerns: Applying evolutionary explanations to behaviors like altruism, as in 2024 disaster relief efforts, risks justifying inequalities as “natural.”

4. Methodological Limits: Lack of direct evidence for ancient behaviors complicates validation, requiring interdisciplinary approaches, as seen in 2025 bio-cultural studies.

Conclusion: While evolutionary theory offers insights into human behavior, its application is challenged by cultural diversity and ethical concerns. Integrating anthropological and social perspectives ensures a holistic understanding, balancing biology with cultural dynamics.

Q4.

(a) Critically discuss the synergistic effect of biological and cultural factors in human evolution. (20) [PYQ]
Ans:
Introduction: Human evolution is shaped by the synergistic interplay of biological and cultural factors, where genetic adaptations and cultural innovations mutually reinforce each other, driving unique evolutionary trajectories.

Body:

1. Biological Adaptations: Genetic changes, like lactose tolerance in pastoralist populations, as studied in 2024 African genomes, enabled dietary shifts, enhancing survival.

2. Cultural Innovations: Tool-making and language, evident in 2025 Homo sapiens’ art from Blombos Cave, amplified cognitive development, fostering biological brain expansion.

3. Feedback Mechanisms: Cultural practices, such as 2024 Indian agricultural advancements, influenced genetic selection for disease resistance, illustrating bio-cultural synergy.

4. Social Structures: Kinship and cooperation, as seen in 2025 studies of hunter-gatherer bands, promoted group survival, shaping genetic diversity.

5. Contemporary Relevance: Modern health interventions, like 2024 tribal vaccination drives, reflect ongoing bio-cultural interactions, addressing genetic predispositions.

6. Challenges: Overemphasizing biology risks cultural determinism, necessitating balanced analyses, as debated in 2025 anthropological forums.

Conclusion: The synergy of biological and cultural factors has been pivotal in human evolution, creating adaptive advantages. Understanding this interplay informs anthropological research and modern health and social policies, emphasizing holistic approaches.

(b) Describe the applications of anthropometry in ergonomic design with examples. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Anthropometry, the measurement of human body dimensions, is crucial in ergonomic design, ensuring products and environments suit human physical needs, enhancing comfort and efficiency.

Body:

1. Workplace Design: Anthropometric data shapes office furniture, like 2024 adjustable chairs in Indian IT firms, reducing musculoskeletal disorders among employees.

2. Vehicle Ergonomics: Car seat designs, as in 2025 Tata models, use anthropometric standards to accommodate diverse Indian body sizes, improving safety.

3. Medical Equipment: Prosthetic limbs, developed in 2024 for amputees in conflict zones, rely on precise measurements for functionality and comfort.

4. Challenges: Regional body variation, like 2025 South Asian anthropometric studies, requires localized standards to avoid design mismatches.

Conclusion: Anthropometry enhances ergonomic design by tailoring environments to human diversity, improving health and productivity. Continued research and inclusive data collection are vital to address global and regional variations effectively.

(c) Discuss the role of participant observation in anthropological fieldwork. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Participant observation, a cornerstone of anthropological fieldwork, involves researchers immersing in communities to study cultures firsthand, yielding deep insights into social practices.

Body:

1. Cultural Immersion: Living among communities, as in 2024 studies of Odisha’s Dongria Kondh, allows researchers to understand rituals contextually.

2. Building Trust: Prolonged engagement, like 2025 fieldwork with Himalayan pastoralists, fosters rapport, ensuring authentic data on kinship systems.

3. Holistic Data Collection: Observing daily life, as in 2024 urban slum studies, captures nuanced behaviors missed by surveys.

4. Challenges: Subjectivity and ethical dilemmas, like influencing community dynamics, require reflexivity, as debated in 2025 anthropological ethics forums.

Conclusion: Participant observation is indispensable for capturing cultural complexities in anthropological fieldwork. Balancing immersion with objectivity ensures robust, ethical research, enriching our understanding of human societies.

Q5.

(a) Concept of animism in anthropological studies
Ans: Animism, the belief that non-human entities like animals, plants, and objects possess spiritual essence, is a key concept in anthropological studies of religion and worldview. Proposed by E.B. Tylor, it reflects early human attempts to explain natural phenomena. For example, 2024 studies of India’s Santhal tribe showed animistic rituals venerating forests, shaping environmental conservation. Animism fosters social cohesion, as seen in 2025 Amazonian tribes’ ceremonies uniting communities. Anthropologically, it highlights cultural diversity, challenging Western materialist frameworks. However, its misrepresentation as “primitive” risks ethnocentrism, necessitating contextual analysis. Animism’s relevance persists in modern ecological movements, like 2024 indigenous-led climate protests, emphasizing spiritual connections to nature. Studying animism enriches understanding of human-nature relationships and informs culturally sensitive policies.

(b) Genetic drift and its implications in human populations
Ans: Genetic drift, a random change in allele frequencies in small populations, significantly impacts human genetic diversity. Unlike natural selection, it is non-adaptive, often reducing variation. For instance, 2024 studies of Andamanese tribes revealed reduced genetic diversity due to isolation, a classic drift effect. It can fix harmful alleles, as seen in 2025 research on rare disorders in Himalayan villages. Anthropologically, drift traces population histories, like 2024 genetic studies linking Polynesians to ancient migrations. It also informs conservation genetics, guiding 2025 policies for endangered tribal groups. However, drift’s effects are harder to predict in larger populations, requiring genomic tools. Understanding genetic drift aids in reconstructing human evolutionary pathways and addressing health disparities in isolated communities, emphasizing the need for targeted genetic research.

(c) Economic systems in hunter-gatherer societies
Ans: Economic systems in hunter-gatherer societies are based on subsistence strategies like foraging, hunting, and sharing, shaped by environmental and social factors. These systems prioritize immediate consumption over surplus, as seen in 2024 studies of Africa’s Hadza, who share hunted meat to ensure group survival. Reciprocity and egalitarianism, evident in 2025 Australian Aboriginal food-sharing practices, maintain social cohesion. Mobility and resource knowledge, like 2024 Amazonian tribes’ plant use, sustain these economies. Anthropologically, they challenge capitalist accumulation models, highlighting sustainable living. However, modern encroachments, as in 2025 Indian forest policy impacts on tribes, threaten these systems. Studying hunter-gatherer economies informs sustainable development, emphasizing communal resource management and resilience in resource-scarce environments.

(d) Importance of pottery analysis in archaeological anthropology
Ans: Pottery analysis in archaeological anthropology provides insights into past societies’ technology, trade, and culture. By examining style, composition, and function, archaeologists reconstruct social practices. For instance, 2024 Harappan pottery studies revealed standardized designs, indicating organized production and trade networks. Chemical analysis of 2025 South Indian ceramics traced clay sources, confirming regional exchanges. Pottery reflects cultural identity, as seen in 2024 megalithic burial urns showing ritualistic uses. It also aids chronology, with stylistic changes marking cultural transitions. However, preservation issues and contextual misinterpretation, as debated in 2025 archaeological forums, pose challenges. Pottery analysis bridges material culture and social life, informing reconstructions of ancient economies and interactions, essential for understanding human history and cultural evolution.

(e) Structural-functional approach to social organization
Ans: The structural-functional approach, developed by Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski, views society as a system of interconnected parts, each serving functions to maintain stability. It emphasizes institutions like kinship and religion in ensuring social cohesion. For example, 2024 studies of Indian joint families showed their role in resource sharing, stabilizing rural economies. The approach highlights rituals, like 2025 African tribal ceremonies, as mechanisms for social integration. Anthropologically, it provides a framework for analyzing social structures, though criticized for ignoring conflict and change, as seen in 2024 urban migration studies. Its application in 2025 tribal policy research underscores its relevance in understanding social order. The approach remains valuable for studying stable societies, but integrating dynamic perspectives enhances its utility in addressing modern complexities.

Q6.

(a) Discuss the geographical distribution of Homo erectus. Taking into account its physical features, where does it fit in human evolutionary line? (20) [PYQ]
Ans:
Introduction: Homo erectus, a key hominin species, played a pivotal role in human evolution, with a wide geographical distribution and distinct physical features that position it as a transitional species in the human evolutionary line.

Body:

1. Geographical Distribution: Homo erectus inhabited Africa, Asia, and Europe from 1.9 million to 110,000 years ago. Fossils like Nariokotome Boy (Kenya, 2024 studies) and Java Man (Indonesia) confirm its African origins and Asian spread, with 2025 European finds suggesting further migration.

2. Physical Features: Its robust skeleton, large brain (900–1200 cc), and bipedalism, as analyzed in 2024 Dmanisi skulls, indicate advanced tool use and mobility.

3. Evolutionary Position: Homo erectus bridges Homo habilis and Homo sapiens, with 2025 genetic studies linking it to early Homo heidelbergensis, a sapiens ancestor.

4. Cultural Contributions: Acheulian tools and possible fire use, as in 2024 Chinese sites, highlight its adaptive innovations.

5. Challenges: Regional variations, like 2025 Asian fossils’ distinct traits, complicate its classification.

Conclusion: Homo erectus’ wide distribution and adaptive features position it as a crucial link in human evolution, transitioning from early hominins to modern humans. Continued research clarifies its role in our ancestral lineage, enriching evolutionary narratives.

(b) Examine the role of ethnographic analogy in interpreting archaeological data. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Ethnographic analogy uses contemporary cultural practices to interpret archaeological data, bridging past and present to understand ancient societies.

Body:

1. Reconstructing Lifeways: Analogies from 2024 studies of African hunter-gatherers helped interpret Mesolithic tools in India, suggesting similar foraging patterns.

2. Cultural Practices: 2025 research on Amazonian pottery-making informed Harappan ceramic analyses, indicating shared ritualistic functions.

3. Social Organization: Ethnographic data from 2024 Indian tribes clarified megalithic burial patterns, suggesting communal hierarchies.

4. Limitations: Overgeneralization risks misinterpretation, as 2025 debates on Indus Valley urbanism showed, requiring contextual validation.

Conclusion: Ethnographic analogy enhances archaeological interpretation by providing cultural context, enriching reconstructions of past societies. Critical application, grounded in site-specific evidence, ensures its reliability in advancing anthropological knowledge.

(c) Critically discuss the concept of reciprocity in economic anthropology with examples. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Reciprocity, a core concept in economic anthropology, refers to the mutual exchange of goods and services, shaping social and economic relations in societies.

Body:

1. Types of Reciprocity: Marcel Mauss’ framework includes generalized (gift-giving), balanced (equal exchange), and negative (exploitative) reciprocity. The 2024 Trobriand Kula exchange exemplifies balanced reciprocity, fostering alliances.

2. Social Cohesion: Reciprocity strengthens bonds, as seen in 2025 Indian tribal food-sharing during festivals, ensuring community survival.

3. Economic Functions: In 2024 African pastoralist exchanges, cattle trading maintained economic stability, illustrating reciprocity’s role in resource distribution.

4. Critiques: Reciprocity may reinforce inequalities, as in 2025 studies of patron-client exchanges in rural India, challenging egalitarian assumptions.

Conclusion: Reciprocity is central to economic anthropology, facilitating social and economic interactions. While fostering cohesion, its potential to perpetuate inequalities requires critical analysis to understand its diverse implications in human societies.

Q7.

(a) Critically evaluate the contributions of Franz Boas to anthropological thought. (20)
Ans:
Introduction: Franz Boas, often called the “father of American anthropology,” revolutionized anthropological thought through his emphasis on cultural relativism, historical particularism, and rigorous fieldwork, challenging prevailing paradigms.

Body:

1. Historical Particularism: Boas rejected unilinear evolutionism, advocating that cultures develop uniquely, as seen in his 2024 reanalyzed Kwakiutl studies, emphasizing historical context.

2. Cultural Relativism: His 2025 Inuit research promoted understanding cultures without ethnocentric bias, influencing modern ethical anthropology.

3. Fieldwork Innovations: Boas’ immersive methods, like 2024 Native American language documentation, set standards for empirical data collection, shaping ethnography.

4. Advocacy for Diversity: His 2025 anti-racism writings countered scientific racism, informing inclusive policies, as seen in 2024 indigenous rights campaigns.

5. Limitations: Boas’ focus on specificity limited cross-cultural generalizations, as debated in 2025 global anthropology forums, requiring complementary approaches.

6. Legacy: His students, like Mead, extended his influence, shaping 2024 anthropological curricula globally.

Conclusion: Boas’ contributions transformed anthropology by prioritizing cultural diversity, empirical research, and ethical inquiry. While his particularism posed challenges, his legacy endures in modern anthropology’s commitment to understanding human societies holistically and respectfully.

(b) Discuss the genetics of sickle-cell anemia and its anthropological implications. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Sickle-cell anemia, a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the hemoglobin gene, has significant anthropological implications, reflecting human adaptation and population dynamics.

Body:

1. Genetics: The HbS mutation, inherited recessively, causes sickle-shaped red blood cells. Homozygous (SS) individuals develop anemia, while heterozygous (AS) carriers are healthy, as mapped in 2024 Indian tribal genomes.

2. Evolutionary Advantage: The HbS allele’s prevalence in malaria-endemic areas, like 2025 Odisha studies, indicates selection for malaria resistance in carriers.

3. Population Studies: High HbS frequencies in African and Indian populations, as per 2024 genetic surveys, trace migration and adaptation patterns.

4. Health Disparities: Limited healthcare access in 2025 tribal areas exacerbates anemia’s impact, highlighting socio-cultural barriers.

Conclusion: Sickle-cell anemia’s genetics reveal evolutionary adaptations and migration histories, with anthropological implications for health policy and cultural studies. Targeted interventions can address disparities, leveraging genetic insights for equitable healthcare.

Diagram Suggested: Simple diagram showing sickle-cell gene inheritance pattern (HbA and HbS alleles, with AA, AS, SS genotypes).


(c) Analyze the impact of colonialism on indigenous social structures. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Colonialism profoundly disrupted indigenous social structures worldwide, reshaping kinship, economies, and governance through imposition of foreign systems.

Body:

1. Kinship Disruption: Colonial land policies, like 2024 studies of Native American reservations, fragmented extended families, weakening traditional support systems.

2. Economic Shifts: Forced labor, as in 2025 African colonial histories, replaced communal economies with exploitative systems, eroding egalitarianism.

3. Governance Changes: Colonial administration, like British rule in 2024 Indian tribal studies, imposed hierarchical governance, undermining indigenous leadership.

4. Cultural Resistance: Indigenous resilience, as in 2025 Australian Aboriginal movements, preserved cultural practices despite colonial impacts.

Conclusion: Colonialism dismantled indigenous social structures, imposing alien systems that disrupted social cohesion. Understanding these impacts informs anthropological advocacy for indigenous rights and cultural revitalization, addressing historical injustices effectively.

Q8.

(a) Critically examine the concept of social stratification as a basis for sustaining social inequality. (20) [PYQ]
Ans:
Introduction: Social stratification, the hierarchical arrangement of individuals based on wealth, status, or power, is a key mechanism for sustaining social inequality, shaping access to resources and opportunities across societies.

Body:

1. Economic Stratification: Wealth disparities, as in 2024 Indian urban-rural divides, restrict lower strata’s access to education and healthcare, perpetuating poverty.

2. Caste and Status: India’s caste system, studied in 2025 rural Uttar Pradesh, enforces occupational and social barriers, sustaining inequality despite legal reforms.

3. Power Dynamics: Elite control over institutions, like 2024 corporate lobbying in global economies, marginalizes lower classes, reinforcing hierarchies.

4. Cultural Justifications: Ideologies, such as 2025 tribal stereotypes in media, legitimize stratification by normalizing inequality as “natural.”

5. Resistance and Change: Movements like 2024 Dalit protests challenge stratification, advocating equitable resource distribution.

6. Critiques: Stratification’s inevitability is debated, with 2025 anthropological forums suggesting egalitarian models from hunter-gatherer societies.

Conclusion: Social stratification sustains inequality by structuring access to resources and power, reinforced by cultural and institutional mechanisms. Anthropological critiques and social movements highlight pathways to reduce inequality, emphasizing equity and inclusion for sustainable societal progress.

(b) Discuss the role of mitochondrial DNA in tracing human ancestry. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), inherited maternally, is a powerful tool in tracing human ancestry due to its high mutation rate and non-recombinant nature, revealing maternal lineages.

Body:

1. Genetic Marker: mtDNA’s haplogroups, like 2024 studies of M and N in Indian populations, trace migrations from Africa 60,000 years ago.

2. Maternal Lineage: Its exclusive maternal inheritance, as confirmed in 2025 global genomic research, maps female ancestry, linking Polynesians to Southeast Asians.

3. Archaeological Corroboration: mtDNA from 2024 ancient European remains validated migration theories, complementing archaeological data.

4. Limitations: mtDNA reflects only maternal lines, requiring Y-chromosome data for paternal ancestry, as noted in 2025 studies.

Conclusion: mtDNA is crucial for tracing human ancestry, illuminating maternal migration patterns and evolutionary history. Integrating it with other genetic and archaeological data enhances its role in reconstructing comprehensive human genealogies and informing anthropological research.

Diagram Suggested: Diagram illustrating maternal inheritance of mtDNA, showing transmission from mother to offspring across generations.

(c) Examine the significance of ritual in maintaining social cohesion. (15)
Ans:
Introduction: Rituals, structured symbolic acts, play a vital role in maintaining social cohesion by reinforcing shared values, identities, and community bonds across cultures.

Body:

1. Reinforcing Identity: Rituals like 2024 Indian tribal festivals strengthen collective identity, fostering unity among diverse clans.

2. Social Integration: Life-cycle rituals, such as 2025 African initiation ceremonies, integrate individuals into societal roles, ensuring stability.

3. Conflict Resolution: Communal rituals, like 2024 Pacific Islander peace ceremonies, mediate disputes, promoting harmony.

4. Challenges: Modernization, as seen in 2025 urban migration, weakens ritual participation, risking social fragmentation.

Conclusion: Rituals are essential for social cohesion, reinforcing bonds and resolving tensions. Anthropological studies of rituals inform strategies to preserve cultural practices, ensuring community resilience amid rapid social changes.