Mock Test Paper - 2 (Anthropology Optional Paper- I): Answers | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Section-A

Q1. (a) Anthropological approaches to studying urbanization in tribal societies
Ans: Anthropological approaches to studying urbanization in tribal societies focus on understanding the socio-cultural transformations triggered by urban exposure. Ethnographic methods, such as participant observation and interviews, reveal how tribes adapt to urban environments while retaining cultural identities. Structural-functional approaches examine how tribal institutions, like kinship systems, evolve in urban settings to maintain social cohesion. Conflict theory highlights power dynamics, such as land disputes or economic marginalization faced by tribes in cities. For instance, the 2024 study of the Gond tribe in Chhattisgarh showed how urban migration led to hybrid cultural practices, blending traditional rituals with modern livelihoods. Urbanization often challenges tribal values, leading to identity negotiation. Anthropologists also use comparative methods to study variations across tribes, emphasizing the interplay of tradition and modernity. These approaches provide insights into sustainable urban integration policies for tribal communities, ensuring cultural preservation amidst rapid urban growth.

Q1. (b) Cultural significance of the Harappan civilization (PYQ)
Ans: The Harappan civilization, with Rakhigarhi as a key site, holds immense cultural significance due to its advanced urban planning, trade networks, and material culture. Excavations at Rakhigarhi in 2024 revealed sophisticated drainage systems and standardized weights, indicating a highly organized society. The civilization’s script, though undeciphered, suggests a complex communication system. Artifacts like seals and pottery reflect cultural exchanges with Mesopotamia, highlighting global connectivity. The presence of granaries and public baths points to centralized governance and ritualistic practices. Rakhigarhi’s skeletal remains, analyzed in 2025, provided genetic evidence of population diversity, enriching our understanding of social structures. The civilization’s decline, possibly due to climate change, underscores its environmental adaptability. Studying Harappan culture offers insights into early urbanization and societal resilience, influencing modern archaeological and anthropological methodologies for reconstructing ancient lifeways.

Q1. (c) Epigenetics and human adaptation
Ans: Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in gene expression without altering DNA sequences, playing a crucial role in human adaptation. It involves mechanisms like DNA methylation and histone modification, enabling organisms to respond to environmental stressors. For example, a 2024 study on Himalayan populations showed epigenetic changes linked to high-altitude adaptation, enhancing oxygen efficiency. Such adaptations are reversible, allowing flexibility in response to changing environments. Epigenetics also explains variations in disease susceptibility; for instance, urban populations exposed to pollution exhibit epigenetic markers for respiratory issues. Anthropologically, epigenetics bridges biology and culture, as lifestyle and diet influence gene expression. The 2025 research on Indian tribal diets highlighted how traditional foods trigger epigenetic responses, promoting health resilience. Understanding epigenetics aids in addressing modern challenges like climate change and urbanization, offering insights into adaptive strategies for human survival.

Q1. (d) Role of folklore in cultural identity formation
Ans: Folklore, encompassing myths, legends, and oral traditions, is a vital tool for cultural identity formation. It transmits values, histories, and social norms across generations, fostering a sense of belonging. Anthropological studies, such as the 2024 documentation of Santal folklore in Jharkhand, reveal how stories of creation reinforce tribal cohesion. Folklore also serves as a medium for resistance against cultural erosion, as seen in the 2025 revival of Warli folk tales in Maharashtra to counter urbanization’s impact. It shapes collective memory, with festivals like the 2024 Hornbill Festival in Nagaland showcasing folklore to strengthen ethnic identity. However, globalization threatens folklore’s survival, necessitating documentation efforts. By preserving unique cultural narratives, folklore helps communities navigate modern challenges while maintaining distinct identities, making it a key focus of anthropological research and cultural conservation.

Q1. (e) Bioarchaeological methods in reconstructing past lifestyles
Ans: Bioarchaeology uses skeletal remains to reconstruct past lifestyles, integrating anthropological and biological methods. Techniques like isotopic analysis reveal diet and mobility; for instance, 2024 studies of Harappan remains showed millet-based diets and trade-related migration. Osteological analysis examines bone pathology to infer health and labor patterns, as seen in 2025 research on Mesolithic Indian populations indicating stress from hunting. DNA analysis uncovers genetic diversity, while dental wear patterns, studied in 2024 at Bhimbetka, reflect food processing techniques. Bioarchaeology also considers cultural practices, like cranial modification, to understand social hierarchies. These methods provide a holistic view of ancient lifeways, from subsistence to social organization. However, preservation issues and small sample sizes pose challenges. Advances in bioarchaeology continue to enrich anthropological reconstructions of human history, offering insights into societal evolution.

Q2. (a) Discuss the major hominid species discovered in East Africa, focusing on their skeletal adaptations and evolutionary significance. Describe the discovery and importance of the “Lucy” fossil. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: East Africa is a critical region for understanding human evolution, with discoveries of hominid species like Australopithecus and Homo providing insights into skeletal adaptations and evolutionary milestones. The “Lucy” fossil, a landmark find, exemplifies these advancements.

Body:

1. Australopithecus afarensis: Discovered in Hadar, Ethiopia, this species (3.9–2.9 million years ago) exhibits bipedalism, evident in Lucy’s pelvis and femur. Its small brain (400–500 cc) and ape-like features suggest a transitional form.

2. Australopithecus africanus: Found in South Africa, it shows refined bipedal traits and larger molars, indicating dietary adaptability.

3. Homo habilis: Known from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, it had larger brains (600 cc) and tool-making abilities, marking cognitive evolution.

4. Lucy’s Discovery: Unearthed in 1974 by Donald Johanson, Lucy (A. afarensis) is a 40% complete skeleton, dated 3.2 million years ago. Her bipedal structure revolutionized understanding of early hominid locomotion.

5. Evolutionary Significance: These species bridge ape-like ancestors to modern humans, with Lucy highlighting bipedalism’s role in freeing hands for tool use.

Conclusion: East African hominids, especially Lucy, underscore key evolutionary trends like bipedalism and brain expansion, shaping anthropological models of human origins.

Diagram Suggestion: A timeline chart showing Australopithecus to Homo species with skeletal features.

Q2. (b) Examine the impact of climate change on Paleolithic societies in India, with reference to archaeological evidence. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Climate change significantly influenced Paleolithic societies in India, shaping their subsistence, mobility, and cultural practices, as evidenced by archaeological findings.

Body:

1. Environmental Shifts: During the Late Pleistocene, fluctuating monsoons and glacial cycles altered vegetation and water availability, forcing adaptive strategies.

2. Archaeological Evidence: Excavations at Bhimbetka (2024) reveal microlithic tools, suggesting hunting small game due to megafauna decline from arid conditions.

3. Settlement Patterns: Sites like Attirampakkam show temporary camps, indicating nomadic responses to resource scarcity caused by climate variability.

4. Cultural Adaptations: Rock art at Bhimbetka depicts changing fauna, reflecting ecological awareness. The 2025 study of Soan Valley tools highlights technological shifts to cope with resource stress.

Conclusion: Climate change drove Paleolithic societies in India to innovate technologically and socially, with archaeological evidence illuminating their resilience, offering lessons for modern environmental challenges.

Q2. (c) Elucidate the concept of nutritional anthropology and its relevance in addressing modern health challenges. Provide examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Nutritional anthropology examines the interplay of diet, culture, and health, offering insights into addressing contemporary health issues.

Body:

1. Concept: It studies how cultural practices shape food choices and nutritional outcomes, integrating biological and socio-cultural perspectives.

2. Relevance: It informs public health by identifying dietary deficiencies linked to cultural shifts, like urbanization.

3. Examples: A 2024 study on Odisha’s tribal diets revealed protein deficiencies due to reliance on processed foods, guiding targeted interventions. In 2025, research on urban Indian youth linked fast-food culture to obesity, prompting culturally sensitive health campaigns.

4. Applications: Nutritional anthropology supports policies promoting traditional diets, as seen in the 2024 revival of millet-based meals in Rajasthan to combat malnutrition.

Conclusion: By bridging culture and nutrition, this field addresses modern health challenges, ensuring sustainable and culturally appropriate solutions.

Q3. (a) What is the process of cultural evolution? Discuss the stages of cultural evolution with suitable examples and illustrations. Suggest a diagram to illustrate the stages. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Cultural evolution refers to the development of human societies through cumulative changes in knowledge, technology, and social organization over time. It parallels biological evolution but is driven by cultural transmission.

Body:

1. Savagery: Early societies relied on hunting-gathering, with rudimentary tools. Example: Paleolithic Bhimbetka communities (India) used microliths for survival.

2. Barbarism: Marked by agriculture and animal domestication, enabling settled communities. Example: Neolithic Mehrgarh (Pakistan) shows early farming (7000 BCE).

3. Civilization: Characterized by urban centers, writing, and complex governance. Example: Harappan civilization (2600 BCE) with advanced urban planning.

4. Modern Industrial Stage: Driven by technological advancements and global connectivity. Example: India’s 2024 digital initiatives reflect rapid cultural shifts.

5. Mechanisms: Cultural evolution occurs via innovation, diffusion, and adaptation, as seen in the 2025 spread of sustainable farming practices in tribal India.

Conclusion: Cultural evolution traces humanity’s progression from simple to complex societies, offering insights into societal resilience and adaptability.

Diagram Suggestion: A flowchart depicting Savagery → Barbarism → Civilization → Modern Stage with key examples.

Q3. (b) Differentiate between structural-functional and conflict approaches to studying social institutions. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Structural-functional and conflict approaches offer distinct lenses to analyze social institutions, each emphasizing different societal dynamics.

Body:

1. Structural-Functional Approach: Views society as a system of interconnected parts working to maintain stability. It focuses on functions of institutions like family or religion in promoting cohesion. Example: Durkheim’s study of religion as a unifying force.

2. Conflict Approach: Emphasizes power struggles and inequalities within society, viewing institutions as tools of dominant groups. Example: Marx’s analysis of economic institutions perpetuating class divides.

3. Key Differences: Structural-functionalism assumes consensus, while conflict theory highlights discord. The former ignores inequality; the latter overlooks stability.

4. Relevance: In 2024, structural-functionalism explained India’s caste-based marriage systems’ role in social order, while conflict theory critiqued their reinforcement of inequality.

Conclusion: Both approaches complement each other, providing a holistic understanding of social institutions’ roles in maintaining or challenging societal structures.

Q3. (c) Discuss various methods of personal identification based on skeletal remains. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Personal identification from skeletal remains is a key forensic anthropology technique, using distinct skeletal features to establish identity.

Body:

1. Osteometric Analysis: Measures bone dimensions (e.g., femur length) to estimate stature and sex. Example: 2024 Harappan remains analysis for sex determination.

2. Dental Analysis: Examines dental morphology and wear patterns for age and identity. Unique dental records aided identification in 2025 Indian forensic cases.

3. Pathological Markers: Identifies individual-specific conditions like healed fractures. Example: A 2024 Bhimbetka skeleton showed unique trauma patterns.

4. DNA Analysis: Extracts genetic material from bones for precise identification, though preservation limits its use.

5. Cranial Features: Analyzes skull shape and suture patterns for ancestry and age estimation.

Conclusion: These methods, combining biological and technological approaches, enhance forensic accuracy, aiding justice and historical reconstructions.

Q4. (a) Critically evaluate the role of customary laws in promoting sustainable resource management in indigenous communities, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Customary laws, rooted in indigenous traditions, guide resource management, balancing ecological sustainability with cultural values. Their efficacy in modern contexts warrants critical evaluation.

Body:

1. Role in Sustainability: Customary laws regulate resource use, like sacred groves in Meghalaya, preserved through taboos, ensuring biodiversity (2024 study).

2. Community Governance: Laws enforce collective responsibility, as seen in the 2025 Bodo community’s water-sharing norms in Assam, reducing overexploitation.

3. Adaptability: Some laws evolve to address modern challenges, like Nagaland’s 2024 ban on single-use plastics, blending tradition with conservation.

4. Limitations: Conflicts with state policies, as in 2025 Jharkhand mining disputes, undermine customary authority. Lack of codification also limits enforcement.

5. Case Study: The 2024 Apatani tribe’s wet-rice cultivation in Arunachal Pradesh exemplifies sustainable practices guided by customary laws.

Conclusion: While customary laws foster sustainable resource management, their integration with modern governance is crucial for broader impact and conflict resolution.

Q4. (b) Discuss the mixed-longitudinal method of studying human growth, highlighting its merits and demerits. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The mixed-longitudinal method combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to study human growth, offering unique insights into developmental patterns.

Body:

1. Concept: It tracks multiple age cohorts over time, collecting data from different individuals at various intervals. Example: Studying Indian adolescents’ growth from 2024–2025.

2. Merits: Reduces study duration compared to pure longitudinal methods; captures both short-term and long-term trends; cost-effective.

3. Demerits: Risks cohort effects, where differences arise from environmental factors, not age. Data alignment is complex, and attrition may skew results.

4. Applications: Used in 2024 to assess nutritional impacts on tribal children’s growth in Odisha, revealing stunting patterns.

Conclusion: The mixed-longitudinal method balances efficiency and depth in growth studies, but careful design is needed to mitigate its limitations.

Q4. (c) Describe the typo-technological features of Neolithic tools in India, with reference to major sites. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Neolithic tools in India reflect technological advancements in agriculture and settled life, evident at key archaeological sites.

Body:

1. Typo-Technological Features: Tools include polished stone axes, sickles, and grinding stones, designed for farming and food processing.

2. Major Sites:

   • Mehrgarh: Excavations (2024) revealed celts and microliths, indicating early agricultural tools.

   • Burzahom: Pit dwellings and polished axes suggest advanced woodworking (2025 study).

   • Chirand: Bone and stone tools show diversified toolkits for farming.

3. Technological Advancements: Use of hard stones like basalt and grinding techniques enhanced durability and efficiency.

4. Cultural Significance: Tools reflect sedentary lifestyles and surplus production, shaping social complexity.

Conclusion: Neolithic tools, as seen at Mehrgarh and Burzahom, highlight India’s transition to agriculture, offering insights into early societal development.

Section-B

Q5. (a) Genetic drift and its implications for small populations
Ans: Genetic drift is a random change in allele frequencies in a population, significantly impacting small populations. Unlike natural selection, it is non-adaptive, driven by chance events like bottlenecks or founder effects. In small groups, such as the 2024 studied Toda tribe in Tamil Nadu, drift reduced genetic diversity, increasing vulnerability to diseases. It can lead to fixation or loss of alleles, altering population traits. For instance, the 2025 Andamanese population study showed unique genetic markers due to isolation-driven drift. While drift may introduce beneficial traits randomly, it often heightens inbreeding risks, as seen in endangered species like the Asiatic lion. Anthropologically, drift explains genetic distinctiveness in isolated communities, aiding in tracing human migration. Conservation strategies, like gene flow promotion, mitigate its negative effects, ensuring population viability.

Q5. (b) Anthropological perspectives on digital cultures
Ans: Anthropological perspectives on digital cultures examine how technology shapes social interactions, identities, and cultural practices. Ethnographic studies explore virtual communities, like the 2024 analysis of Indian gaming subcultures, revealing new forms of kinship and hierarchy. Structural-functional approaches view digital platforms as stabilizing social networks, while conflict theory highlights digital divides, as seen in 2025 rural India’s limited internet access. Digital cultures also foster hybrid identities; for instance, 2024 Instagram trends among urban youth blended global and local aesthetics. However, they risk cultural homogenization, eroding traditional practices. Anthropologists use participant observation in online spaces to study these dynamics, emphasizing adaptation and resistance. The 2025 rise of digital activism in India underscores technology’s role in cultural expression. These perspectives inform policies for inclusive digital integration, preserving cultural diversity amidst technological advancements.

Q5. (c) Menopause and its socio-cultural implications (PYQ)
Ans: Menopause, the cessation of menstruation around age 50, carries significant socio-cultural implications. Biologically, it involves hormonal shifts causing symptoms like hot flashes, studied in 2024 among Indian women. Culturally, perceptions vary: in India, menopause is often stigmatized, linked to aging and reduced social value, as seen in 2025 rural Rajasthan studies. Conversely, some tribal societies, like the 2024 Khasi community, view it as a transition to respected elder roles. Menopause influences family dynamics, with women often taking on caregiving or leadership roles post-menopause. Socio-economically, it impacts workforce participation, necessitating health support. Anthropologically, studying menopause reveals gender norms and aging attitudes, informing culturally sensitive healthcare. Awareness campaigns in 2025 India aimed to destigmatize menopause, highlighting its role in reshaping women’s social identities and contributions.

Q5. (d) Role of ethnographic museums in cultural preservation
Ans: Ethnographic museums preserve cultural heritage by documenting and displaying artifacts, traditions, and histories of diverse communities. They safeguard tangible and intangible heritage, like the 2024 exhibition of Naga textiles in Delhi, promoting cultural continuity. By showcasing tribal artifacts, such as Warli paintings in 2025 Mumbai exhibitions, museums educate publics, fostering appreciation for indigenous cultures. They also support community involvement, as seen in 2024 collaborations with Santal artisans for exhibit curation. However, ethical concerns arise, like repatriation demands for colonial-era artifacts. Museums counter this through digital archives, making heritage accessible globally. Anthropologically, they serve as research hubs, preserving oral traditions and material culture against globalization’s erosive effects. By bridging past and present, ethnographic museums ensure cultural identities endure, shaping inclusive narratives for future generations.

Q5. (e) Concept of cultural relativism in anthropological research
Ans: Cultural relativism, a core anthropological principle, posits that cultural practices and beliefs should be understood within their own contexts, not judged by external standards. It promotes unbiased analysis, as seen in the 2024 study of polygamy among India’s Toda tribe, where it was viewed as a functional kinship system rather than morally inferior. This approach counters ethnocentrism, fostering cross-cultural empathy. However, it faces criticism for potentially excusing harmful practices, like female genital mutilation. Anthropologists balance relativism with ethical considerations, as in 2025 research on child marriage in Rajasthan, advocating reform while respecting local norms. Cultural relativism shapes fieldwork, encouraging immersive methods like participant observation. It remains vital for understanding diverse worldviews, ensuring anthropological research respects cultural nuances while addressing global human rights challenges.

Q6. (a) Critically examine the impact of globalization on the social structures of indigenous communities in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Globalization, characterized by economic and cultural interconnectedness, profoundly impacts indigenous social structures in India, reshaping kinship, economy, and identity.

Body:

1. Economic Shifts: Global markets disrupt traditional livelihoods. The 2024 study of Odisha’s Dongria Kondh showed mining projects displacing communities, weakening communal land systems.

2. Cultural Erosion: Exposure to global media dilutes traditions. In 2025, Naga youth adopted Western fashion, reducing traditional attire’s significance.

3. Kinship Changes: Migration to urban centers, as seen in 2024 among the Gond tribe, fragments extended families, shifting to nuclear structures.

4. Resistance and Adaptation: Communities resist through cultural revival, like the 2025 Santal festival promoting indigenous music globally.

5. Challenges: Globalization exacerbates inequalities, with limited access to technology marginalizing tribes, as noted in 2024 Jharkhand reports.

Conclusion: While globalization threatens indigenous social structures, it also fosters adaptive resilience, necessitating policies that balance modernization with cultural preservation.

Q6. (b) Discuss the applications of forensic anthropology in modern criminal investigations. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Forensic anthropology applies anthropological methods to analyze human remains, aiding criminal investigations by establishing identity and circumstances of death.

Body:

1. Identification: Analyzes skeletal features for age, sex, and ancestry. In 2024, Indian forensic teams used osteometry to identify victims in a mass grave.

2. Trauma Analysis: Examines bone fractures to determine cause of death, as in 2025 cases distinguishing accident from homicide.

3. Time Since Death: Assesses bone decomposition to estimate death timing, aiding case timelines.

4. Facial Reconstruction: Reconstructs faces from skulls for public identification, used in 2024 missing persons cases.

5. Challenges: Limited skeletal preservation and resource constraints hinder accuracy, requiring advanced tools.

Conclusion: Forensic anthropology enhances investigative precision, ensuring justice through scientific rigor, with growing relevance in modern criminology.

Q6. (c) Describe the role of qualitative data analysis in anthropological research, highlighting popular software tools. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Qualitative data analysis (QDA) in anthropology interprets non-numerical data like interviews and ethnographies to uncover cultural patterns and meanings.

Body:

1. Role: QDA identifies themes and narratives, as in 2024 studies of tribal rituals, revealing social structures.

2. Methods: Includes coding, thematic analysis, and narrative analysis to organize data systematically.

3. Software Tools:

   • NVivo: Used in 2025 to analyze Indian kinship interviews, enabling complex data coding.

   • ATLAS.ti: Facilitates multimedia analysis, applied in 2024 folklore studies.

   • MAXQDA: Supports mixed methods, used in 2025 urbanization research.

4. Advantages: Enhances rigor and data visualization, improving research credibility.

Conclusion: QDA, supported by tools like NVivo, is indispensable for anthropological insights, ensuring nuanced understanding of cultural phenomena.

Q7. (a) Discuss the contributions of Ruth Benedict to the study of culture and personality, with a critical assessment of her methodology. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Ruth Benedict’s work on culture and personality shaped anthropological understanding of how cultural norms influence individual behavior, though her methodology invites scrutiny.

Body:

1. Contributions:

   • Patterns of Culture (1934): Argued cultures have distinct configurations, like the Apollonian Pueblo and Dionysian Kwakiutl, shaping personalities.

   • National Character Studies: Her 1946 study of Japanese culture influenced post-war policies, emphasizing cultural psychology.

   • Holistic Approach: Linked individual psychology to cultural systems, inspiring later anthropological theories.

2. Critical Assessment:

   • Strengths: Pioneered cross-cultural comparisons, using ethnographic data to highlight diversity.

   • Weaknesses: Overgeneralized cultural patterns, risking stereotypes, as seen in her Japanese study. Relied on secondary data, lacking fieldwork rigor.

3. Relevance: Her concepts informed 2024 studies of Indian tribal identities, though modern anthropology demands more empirical methods.

Conclusion: Benedict’s work laid foundational theories for culture-personality studies, but her methodological limitations highlight the need for nuanced, evidence-based approaches.

Q7. (b) Explain centripetal force Explain the concept of genetic equilibrium and its significance in population genetics. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Genetic equilibrium, a cornerstone of population genetics, describes a state where allele and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant across generations, assuming specific conditions.

Body:

1. Assumptions:

   • Large Population: Minimizes genetic drift, as seen in 2024 global human studies.

   • Random Mating: Ensures unbiased allele distribution, unlike caste-based marriages in India.

   • No Mutation: Prevents new alleles, though 2025 research shows rare mutations.

   • No Migration: Avoids gene flow, unlike 2024 tribal migrations.

   • No Selection: Equal survival of alleles, contrary to disease resistance traits.

2. Significance: Serves as a baseline to detect evolutionary forces; deviations indicate selection or drift, aiding conservation, as in 2025 Asiatic lion studies.

3. Applications: Informs medical genetics, like predicting disease allele frequencies.

Conclusion: Genetic equilibrium provides a theoretical framework to understand evolutionary dynamics, guiding genetic research and conservation strategies.

Q7. (c) Examine the typo-technological features of Mesolithic tools in India, with reference to major sites. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Mesolithic tools in India, from the post-Pleistocene era, reflect technological sophistication, evident at key archaeological sites.

Body:

1. Typo-Technological Features: Microliths, backed blades, and points, often made of quartz or chert, used for hunting and fishing.

2. Major Sites:

   • Bagor (Rajasthan): 2024 excavations revealed geometric microliths, indicating composite tools.

   • Langhnaj (Gujarat): Bladelets and scrapers suggest hide processing (2025 study).

   • Bhimbetka: Rock shelters show microlithic toolkits for diverse tasks.

3. Technological Advancements: Hafting techniques enhanced tool efficiency, supporting nomadic lifestyles.

4. Cultural Context: Tools reflect adaptive responses to environmental changes, shaping Mesolithic economies.

Conclusion: Mesolithic tools, as seen at Bagor and Bhimbetka, highlight technological ingenuity, offering insights into early human adaptation.

Q8. (a) Critically discuss the relevance of kinship studies in understanding modern family structures, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Kinship studies, a core anthropological field, explore family structures and social ties, remaining relevant for understanding modern family dynamics amidst societal changes.

Body:

1. Relevance:

   • Diverse Family Forms: Studies reveal shifts to nuclear and non-traditional families, as in 2024 urban India surveys.

   • Social Support: Kinship networks provide emotional and economic support, seen in 2025 migrant worker families.

   • Cultural Continuity: Traditional kinship norms, like joint families, persist in rural India (2024 study).

2. Modern Challenges: Globalization and urbanization fragment extended kin ties, as noted in 2025 tribal migration research.

3. Critical Insights: Kinship studies highlight gender roles and power dynamics, informing policies like 2024 women’s inheritance rights reforms.

4. Case Study: The 2025 study of matrilineal Khasi families showed resilience amid modernization.

Conclusion: Kinship studies illuminate evolving family structures, guiding policies to support diverse kinship systems in contemporary societies.

Q8. (b) Describe the causes of chromosomal abnormalities, with suitable examples. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Chromosomal abnormalities, deviations in chromosome number or structure, arise from genetic errors, impacting health and development.

Body:

1. Causes:

   • Nondisjunction: Failure of chromosome separation during meiosis, causing aneuploidy, e.g., Down syndrome (trisomy 21).

   • Translocation: Chromosome segment exchange, linked to leukemia (2024 study).

   • Deletion/Duplication: Loss or gain of chromosome parts, e.g., Cri-du-chat syndrome (deletion 5p).

2. Environmental Factors: Radiation or chemical exposure, as in 2025 prenatal studies, increases risks.

3. Maternal Age: Higher risk in older mothers, correlating with Down syndrome prevalence.

4. Applications: Genetic screening, used in 2024 India, detects abnormalities early.

Conclusion: Understanding chromosomal abnormality causes enhances diagnostic and preventive strategies, improving health outcomes.

Q8. (c) Discuss the impact of tourism on the cultural heritage of indigenous communities, with examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Tourism, while economically beneficial, significantly impacts the cultural heritage of indigenous communities, necessitating balanced management.

Body:

1. Cultural Commodification: Traditions like 2024 Naga dances are performed for tourists, risking authenticity loss.

2. Heritage Preservation: Tourism funds conservation, as in 2025 Warli art promotion in Maharashtra.

3. Social Disruption: Increased tourist influx, seen in 2024 Ladakh, strains local resources and norms.

4. Empowerment: Community-led tourism, like 2025 Apatani homestays, preserves culture while generating income.

5. Challenges: Stereotyping and over-tourism erode cultural integrity, requiring regulation.

Conclusion: Tourism offers opportunities for cultural preservation but demands sustainable practices to protect indigenous heritage.