Mock Test Paper - 3 (PSIR Optional Paper- I): Answers | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Q1. (a) Structural-Functional Approach
Ans: The Structural-Functional Approach, developed by David Easton and Gabriel Almond, views society as a system of interconnected parts working together to maintain stability. Structures (institutions like government) perform functions (e.g., law-making, conflict resolution) to ensure system equilibrium. In political science, it analyzes how political systems respond to demands and maintain order. For instance, India’s Parliament (structure) addresses public grievances through legislation (function). In 2024, the passage of the Women’s Reservation Bill showcased how structures adapt to societal demands for gender equity. However, critics argue it oversimplifies conflicts and ignores power dynamics, as seen in protests against farm laws (2020–2021), where systemic responses failed to address farmer discontent. The approach remains relevant for studying stable democracies but is less effective in analyzing revolutionary changes. 

Q1. (b) Post-Modernism in Political Theory
Ans: Post-Modernism in political theory rejects grand narratives and universal truths, emphasizing diversity, subjectivity, and deconstruction of power structures. Thinkers like Foucault highlight how knowledge and power shape societal norms. It critiques traditional ideologies like liberalism for imposing uniform values. In 2025, post-modernism is evident in global movements like climate activism, which challenge state-centric development models and advocate pluralistic solutions. In India, the 2024 protests against NEET reforms reflected post-modern resistance to centralized education policies, favoring local aspirations. However, its relativism can undermine collective action, as seen in fragmented climate negotiations at COP29 (2024). Post-modernism enriches political analysis by questioning hierarchies but struggles to provide actionable frameworks for governance. 

Q1. (c) Concept of "Soft Power"
Ans: Soft Power, coined by Joseph Nye, refers to a nation’s ability to influence others through attraction and persuasion rather than coercion. It includes culture, values, and diplomacy. India’s soft power is evident in its global yoga promotion (International Yoga Day) and Bollywood’s cultural reach. In 2024, India’s G20 presidency showcased its diplomatic soft power, fostering consensus on climate finance. However, soft power’s effectiveness is limited without hard power, as seen in India’s border tensions with China. Critics argue soft power can be overshadowed by economic disparities, as India’s global image competes with internal challenges like poverty. In 2025, India’s vaccine diplomacy during pandemics continues to enhance its global influence. Soft power remains a vital tool for international relations but requires strategic integration with economic and military strength. 

Q1. (d) Rousseau’s General Will
Ans: Rousseau’s General Will represents the collective will of a community aimed at the common good, distinct from individual desires. It underpins his social contract, where citizens surrender personal interests for collective sovereignty. The concept emphasizes direct democracy, as seen in Rousseau’s ideal of small, participatory communities. In modern contexts, India’s 2024 Gram Sabha meetings reflect General Will by enabling village-level consensus on development projects. However, Rousseau’s idea assumes homogeneity, which is impractical in diverse societies like India, where caste and regional identities fragment collective will. Critics highlight its potential for authoritarianism, as leaders may claim to represent the “general will” to suppress dissent, as seen in some populist regimes globally in 2025. Despite limitations, it remains relevant for understanding participatory governance. 

Q1. (e) Feminist Critique of State
Ans: The Feminist Critique of State argues that states are inherently patriarchal, reinforcing gender inequalities through laws, policies, and institutions. Feminists like Carole Pateman critique the social contract as a “sexual contract” that subordinates women. In India, the state’s delay in implementing the Women’s Reservation Bill (passed in 2023) reflects patriarchal resistance. In 2024, protests against gender-based violence highlighted state failure to ensure women’s safety. Feminists argue that state institutions, like the judiciary, often perpetuate male dominance by lenient sentencing in dowry cases. However, feminist movements have pushed for reforms, such as India’s 2025 gender budgeting initiatives. Critics note that focusing solely on the state ignores cultural factors like family structures. The critique remains vital for advocating gender-just policies but requires broader societal engagement. 

Q2. (a) Examine the relevance of Marxist theory in analyzing contemporary global inequalities. 
Ans:
Introduction: Marxist theory, centered on class struggle and capitalist exploitation, remains a critical lens for analyzing global inequalities. Its focus on economic structures and power dynamics is relevant in understanding disparities in wealth, labor, and resources in 2025.

Body:

1. Capitalist Exploitation: Marxism highlights how global capitalism exacerbates inequalities. The 2024 Oxfam report noted that the richest 1% own 50% of global wealth, echoing Marxist critiques of surplus value extraction. Multinationals exploit cheap labor in developing nations, as seen in Bangladesh’s garment industry.

2. Globalization and Imperialism: Marxism’s concept of imperialism explains how Western corporations dominate Global South economies. In 2025, Africa’s debt crisis, driven by IMF loans, reflects neo-colonial exploitation.

3. Class Consciousness: Marxist ideas inspire movements against inequality, like India’s 2024 farmer protests against corporate agriculture policies.

4. Limitations: Marxism’s focus on class overlooks gender and caste-based inequalities, limiting its applicability in diverse contexts like India.

Conclusion: Marxist theory remains relevant for dissecting global inequalities, particularly in capitalist structures, but requires adaptation to address multifaceted oppressions. Its emphasis on systemic change continues to inspire transformative movements. 

Q2. (b) “Liberty and equality are complementary, not contradictory.” Comment. 
Ans:
Introduction: Liberty (individual freedom) and equality (fair distribution of resources and opportunities) are often seen as conflicting, but they can be complementary in fostering a just society.

Body:

1. Mutual Reinforcement: Liberty thrives in an equal society where all have access to opportunities. India’s Right to Education Act (2009) ensures equal access to education, enabling individual freedoms.

2. Safeguarding Rights: Equality in law protects liberty. In 2024, India’s Supreme Court upheld equal voting rights, reinforcing democratic freedoms.

3. Balancing Tensions: Extreme liberty can lead to inequality (e.g., wealth concentration), while excessive equality may curb freedoms (e.g., state overreach). A balanced approach, like India’s affirmative action policies, promotes both.

4. Contemporary Relevance: The 2025 global push for universal basic income reflects efforts to ensure economic equality, enhancing personal liberties.

Conclusion: Liberty and equality are complementary when balanced to promote justice. Democratic systems must harmonize both to ensure inclusive development. 

Q2. (c) (PYQ) Elitist theory of democracy denies the possibility of democracy as 'rule of the people'. Elucidate. 
Ans:
Introduction: The Elitist theory of democracy, proposed by scholars like Pareto and Mosca, argues that democracy is governed by a small elite, challenging the notion of ‘rule of the people’.

Body:

1. Elite Dominance: The theory posits that elites, with superior resources and organization, control decision-making. In India, political dynasties like the Gandhis exemplify elite influence.

2. Limited Public Role: Elitists argue that masses lack expertise, reducing democracy to choosing between elite groups. The 2024 Indian elections saw voters selecting established parties, reinforcing this view.

3. Critique of Ideal Democracy: The theory denies pure democracy, as power concentrates among elites. Global examples like corporate lobbying in the US (2025) highlight elite sway.

4. Counterview: Participatory mechanisms like India’s Gram Sabhas empower citizens, challenging elitist assumptions.

Conclusion: The Elitist theory underscores elite influence in democracy, questioning ‘rule of the people’. However, participatory institutions demonstrate that mass involvement can counter elite dominance, enriching democratic practice. 

Q3. (a) (PYQ) Examine the liberal theory of State in contemporary politics. 
Ans:
Introduction: The liberal theory of State views the State as a neutral arbiter that protects individual rights, promotes welfare, and ensures justice through democratic institutions. Its relevance in contemporary politics is debated amid rising populism and globalization.

Body:

1. Core Principles: Liberalism emphasizes limited government, rule of law, and individual freedoms. India’s Constitution reflects this through fundamental rights and an independent judiciary.

2. Contemporary Relevance: In 2025, liberal States like Canada promote multiculturalism, ensuring minority rights. India’s 2024 Women’s Reservation Bill aligns with liberal goals of equality.

3. Challenges: Populism challenges liberal neutrality, as seen in Hungary’s 2024 policies curbing media freedom. In India, debates over secularism highlight tensions.

4. Globalization Impact: Economic liberalization strains liberal States, as multinational corporations influence policy, evident in India’s 2025 FDI reforms.

5. Adaptation: Liberal States adopt welfare measures, like India’s Ayushman Bharat, balancing individual and collective needs.

Conclusion: The liberal theory remains relevant for promoting rights and democracy but faces challenges from populism and globalization. Its adaptability ensures continued significance in modern governance. 

Q3. (b) Discuss the role of civil society in strengthening democratic governance. 
Ans:
Introduction: Civil society, comprising NGOs, media, and citizen groups, acts as a bridge between the State and citizens, enhancing democratic governance by promoting accountability and participation.

Body:

1. Promoting Accountability: Civil society monitors government actions. In 2024, Indian NGOs like PRS Legislative Research scrutinized parliamentary bills, ensuring transparency.

2. Amplifying Voices: It represents marginalized groups. The 2025 Dalit rights movement in India, led by civil society, pushed for anti-discrimination laws.

3. Policy Advocacy: Civil society shapes policies through advocacy. Environmental groups influenced India’s 2024 renewable energy targets.

4. Challenges: State restrictions, like India’s FCRA amendments, limit civil society’s autonomy, weakening its democratic role.

Conclusion: Civil society strengthens democracy by fostering accountability and inclusion. Despite challenges, its role in empowering citizens and shaping policies remains crucial for robust governance. 

Q3. (c) Comment on the relevance of Kautilya’s Arthashastra in modern governance.
Ans:
Introduction: Kautilya’s Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise, offers insights on statecraft, economics, and diplomacy, retaining relevance in modern governance.

Body:

1. Statecraft and Administration: Kautilya’s emphasis on efficient bureaucracy is reflected in India’s 2025 e-governance initiatives like Digital India.

2. Diplomacy: His pragmatic foreign policy principles guide India’s 2024 G20 leadership, balancing national interests with global cooperation.

3. Economic Management: Kautilya’s focus on resource mobilization aligns with India’s 2025 tax reforms to boost revenue.

4. Limitations: His autocratic approach clashes with democratic values, limiting applicability in pluralistic societies.

Conclusion: The Arthashastra’s principles of administration and diplomacy remain relevant for modern governance, but its authoritarian elements require adaptation to democratic contexts.

Q4. (a) Analyze the impact of globalization on the sovereignty of the State. 
Ans:
Introduction: Globalization, characterized by economic integration, cultural exchange, and technological advancements, has reshaped State sovereignty, challenging traditional notions of autonomy while offering opportunities for cooperation.

Body:

1. Economic Sovereignty: Globalization limits economic control, as States depend on global markets. India’s 2025 FTA with the EU required policy alignments, reducing fiscal autonomy.

2. Cultural Influence: Global media and cultural flows dilute national identity. Hollywood’s dominance challenges India’s cultural sovereignty, though Bollywood’s global reach counters this.

3. Political Constraints: International institutions like the WTO impose regulations. In 2024, India faced WTO pressure on agricultural subsidies, limiting policy freedom.

4. Opportunities: Globalization enables States to project power. India’s 2025 vaccine diplomacy enhanced its global influence.

5. Challenges to Security: Transnational issues like cyberattacks (e.g., 2024 ransomware attacks on Indian banks) undermine State control.

Conclusion: Globalization erodes State sovereignty in economic and political domains but offers avenues for global influence. States must balance integration with autonomy to navigate its challenges effectively. 

Q4. (b) Examine the concept of distributive justice in the context of affirmative action policies. 
Ans:
Introduction: Distributive justice concerns the fair allocation of resources and opportunities. Affirmative action policies, aimed at uplifting marginalized groups, embody this principle but spark debates on fairness.

Body:

1. Promoting Equity: Affirmative action addresses historical injustices. India’s 2024 reservation policies for SC/STs ensure educational and job access, aligning with distributive justice.

2. Reducing Inequalities: These policies redistribute opportunities. The 2025 OBC reservation in medical colleges reduced caste-based disparities.

3. Challenges: Critics argue it compromises merit, as seen in 2024 NEET protests against quota policies.

4. Balancing Fairness: Distributive justice requires balancing group rights with individual merit, a challenge in India’s diverse society.

Conclusion: Affirmative action reflects distributive justice by addressing inequalities but must ensure fairness to maintain social cohesion. Its success depends on transparent implementation.

Q4. (c) Comment on the significance of Gramsci’s concept of hegemony in understanding modern political movements.
Ans:
Introduction: Gramsci’s concept of hegemony describes how ruling classes maintain dominance through consent, not just coercion, shaping modern political movements.

Body:

1. Cultural Dominance: Hegemony explains how ideologies shape public opinion. In 2025, India’s media promoted government narratives on economic reforms, securing public consent.

2. Resistance Movements: Counter-hegemonic movements challenge dominance. The 2024 farmers’ protests in India resisted corporate agricultural policies.

3. Global Relevance: Hegemony is evident in climate movements, where Western narratives dominate global agendas, marginalizing Global South voices at COP29 (2024).

4. Limitations: Gramsci’s focus on class overlooks identity-based movements like India’s Dalit protests.

Conclusion: Gramsci’s hegemony remains significant for analyzing how power is maintained and resisted in modern movements, offering insights into both dominance and emancipation. 

Section - B

Q5. (a) Evolution of women’s movement in India post-Independence
Ans: The women’s movement in India post-Independence has evolved from addressing legal reforms to tackling systemic gender issues. In the 1950s–60s, movements focused on laws like the Hindu Marriage Act (1955) to ensure women’s rights. The 1970s saw feminist activism against dowry and violence, culminating in the 1980s with campaigns for stronger laws like the Dowry Prohibition Act. The 1990s emphasized political representation, leading to the 73rd Amendment reserving seats in panchayats. Post-2000, movements like #MeToo (2018) and 2024 protests against workplace harassment highlighted structural inequalities. In 2025, the implementation of the Women’s Reservation Bill (2023) marks a milestone. However, challenges like rural outreach and intersectionality (caste, religion) persist. The movement’s shift from legal to socio-cultural reforms reflects its growing inclusivity and impact. 

Q5. (b) Role of the Election Commission in ensuring free and fair elections
Ans: The Election Commission of India (ECI) ensures free and fair elections through its constitutional mandate (Article 324). It conducts voter registration, enforces the Model Code of Conduct, and monitors campaign financing. In 2024, the ECI’s use of VVPATs enhanced transparency in Lok Sabha elections. It also curbs electoral malpractices, as seen in its 2025 actions against voter bribery in state polls. The ECI’s independence ensures impartiality, though challenges like political pressure and fake news persist. Its 2024 initiatives to counter misinformation on social media platforms strengthened electoral integrity. However, delays in addressing complaints, as seen in 2025 Maharashtra elections, highlight limitations. The ECI’s proactive measures remain crucial for upholding democratic credibility. 

Q5. (c) Impact of coalition politics on Indian federalism
Ans: Coalition politics has shaped Indian federalism by decentralizing power and promoting regional voices. Since the 1990s, coalition governments, like the UPA and NDA, have relied on regional parties, strengthening federal cooperation. In 2024, the NDA’s alliance with JD(U) and TDP ensured policy concessions for Bihar and Andhra Pradesh, reflecting federal bargaining. Coalition politics fosters inclusive governance but can lead to policy paralysis, as seen in delayed GST reforms (2010s). It also empowers States, as regional parties demand greater fiscal autonomy, evident in Tamil Nadu’s 2025 push for higher devolution. However, coalition instability can weaken national unity. Overall, coalition politics enhances federalism by balancing regional and national interests but requires effective coordination. 

Q5. (d) (PYQ) How far is the National Commission for Backward Classes an empowered body? Assess its role in the context of rising demand for backwardness among dominant communities.
Ans: The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC), established under the 102nd Amendment (2018), advises on OBC inclusion and welfare. It lacks binding powers, as its recommendations are advisory, limiting its authority compared to the SC/ST Commission. In 2025, the NCBC faced challenges with demands for OBC status from dominant communities like Patidars and Jats, reflecting political pressures. Its role in assessing backwardness through socio-economic data is crucial but often politicized, as seen in the 2024 Maratha reservation protests. The NCBC’s reports on educational quotas have influenced policies, but its effectiveness is curtailed by State governments’ autonomy in reservations. Strengthening its legal powers could enhance its role in addressing genuine backwardness while curbing populist demands. 

Q5. (e) Environmental governance in India in the post-liberalization era
Ans: Post-liberalization (1991), India’s environmental governance has struggled to balance growth and sustainability. Policies like the Environment Protection Act (1986) and institutions like the National Green Tribunal (2010) aim to regulate pollution and resource use. However, rapid industrialization has weakened enforcement, as seen in 2024’s Delhi air pollution crisis. The 2025 push for renewable energy (500 GW target) reflects green governance, but lax regulations in mining and urban projects undermine efforts. Public movements, like the 2024 Chipko-inspired protests against Himalayan deforestation, highlight gaps in policy implementation. Economic priorities often overshadow environmental concerns, with FDI in coal projects (2025) exacerbating ecological degradation. Strengthening enforcement and public participation is essential for effective governance.

Q6. (a) Analyze the role of caste in shaping electoral outcomes in India with recent examples. 
Ans:
Introduction: Caste remains a pivotal factor in Indian elections, influencing voter behavior, candidate selection, and party strategies, despite modernization and urbanization.

Body:

1. Voter Mobilization: Parties leverage caste identities to consolidate vote banks. In the 2024 Uttar Pradesh elections, the SP targeted OBCs, securing significant Yadav votes.

2. Candidate Selection: Parties field candidates from dominant local castes. The BJP’s choice of Jat candidates in Haryana (2024) ensured electoral success.

3. Caste-Based Alliances: Coalition strategies align with caste dynamics. The 2025 Bihar elections saw JD(U) and RJD aligning with specific OBC and Dalit groups.

4. Counter-Trends: Urbanization and youth voters reduce caste’s influence, as seen in Delhi’s 2025 elections, where economic issues gained prominence.

5. Challenges: Caste-based voting perpetuates social divisions, undermining issue-based politics.

Conclusion: Caste significantly shapes electoral outcomes through mobilization and alliances, but its influence is waning in urban contexts. Balancing caste dynamics with developmental agendas is crucial for inclusive democracy. 

Q6. (b) Discuss the significance of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment in empowering local governance. 
Ans:
Introduction: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) established Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), empowering local governance by decentralizing power and promoting grassroots democracy.

Body:

1. Institutional Framework: It mandated three-tier PRIs, ensuring local self-governance. In 2024, over 3 million elected representatives managed rural development.

2. Empowering Marginalized Groups: Reservations for women, SCs, and STs enhanced inclusivity. The 2025 women-led panchayats in Kerala drove sustainable projects.

3. Resource Allocation: PRIs identify local needs, as seen in 2024 MGNREGA fund utilization by Gram Sabhas.

4. Challenges: Limited fiscal autonomy and bureaucratic interference, as in Bihar’s 2025 PRI funding delays, hinder effectiveness.

Conclusion: The 73rd Amendment has strengthened local governance by fostering participation and inclusivity, but its full potential requires greater financial and administrative autonomy. 

Q6. (c) Comment on the role of the Finance Commission in promoting fiscal federalism. 
Ans:
Introduction: The Finance Commission (FC) promotes fiscal federalism by recommending the division of financial resources between the Union and States, ensuring equitable development.

Body:

1. Revenue Sharing: The FC allocates tax devolution. The 15th FC (2021–2026) recommended 41% devolution, empowering States like Tamil Nadu in 2025.

2. Grants-in-Aid: It provides grants for local bodies, as seen in 2024 PRI funding for rural infrastructure.

3. Addressing Disparities: The FC balances regional inequalities. In 2025, special grants aided North-Eastern States’ development.

4. Challenges: States demand higher devolution, citing GST losses, as raised in 2024 inter-State meetings.

Conclusion: The FC strengthens fiscal federalism by ensuring resource equity, but addressing State demands and enhancing local body funding are critical for its success. 

Q7. (a) Examine the challenges of implementing cooperative federalism in India with recent case studies. 
Ans:
Introduction: Cooperative federalism, where the Union and States collaborate for national development, is integral to India’s governance but faces significant challenges.

Body:

1. Fiscal Imbalances: States rely on Union grants, limiting autonomy. In 2024, West Bengal’s protests against delayed MGNREGA funds highlighted tensions.

2. Policy Disagreements: Divergent priorities strain cooperation. The 2025 NEET reforms faced resistance from Tamil Nadu, citing State education rights.

3. Centralization Trends: Union policies like the 2024 New Education Policy were criticized for overriding State inputs, undermining federal spirit.

4. Inter-State Disparities: Uneven development fuels rivalry. The 2025 Finance Commission grants favored poorer States, causing friction with richer ones like Maharashtra.

5. Successes: GST Council meetings in 2024 showcased cooperative decision-making, balancing State and Union interests.

Conclusion: Cooperative federalism faces challenges from fiscal and policy disputes but can succeed through inclusive dialogue and equitable resource sharing, as seen in GST reforms. Strengthening institutions like the Inter-State Council is vital. 

Q7. (b) “The Indian Constitution is a living document.” Comment. 
Ans:
Introduction: The Indian Constitution is described as a living document due to its adaptability to changing societal needs through amendments and judicial interpretations.

Body:

1. Amendments: Over 100 amendments, like the 2023 Women’s Reservation Act, reflect its responsiveness to gender equity demands.

2. Judicial Interpretation: The Supreme Court’s 2024 rulings on privacy rights expanded Article 21’s scope, adapting to digital challenges.

3. Federal Flexibility: The Constitution accommodates diverse needs, as seen in 2025’s special provisions for North-Eastern States.

4. Challenges: Frequent amendments risk diluting core principles, as debated in 2024 GST-related changes.

Conclusion: The Constitution’s adaptability through amendments and judicial creativity makes it a living document, but careful stewardship is needed to preserve its foundational values. 

Q7. (c) Discuss the role of regional parties in strengthening Indian democracy.
Ans:
Introduction: Regional parties, representing local aspirations, play a crucial role in strengthening Indian democracy by enhancing representation and federalism.

Body:

1. Regional Representation: Parties like DMK and BJD voice State-specific issues, as seen in Odisha’s 2024 mining policy advocacy.

2. Coalition Governance: Regional parties shape national policies in coalitions. In 2025, TDP’s role in the NDA ensured Andhra Pradesh’s development focus.

3. Voter Engagement: They boost participation by addressing local concerns, increasing turnout in 2024 Tamil Nadu elections.

4. Challenges: Regionalism can fragment national unity, as seen in 2025 language disputes in Karnataka.

Conclusion: Regional parties strengthen democracy by fostering inclusivity and federalism, but their role requires balancing regional and national interests for cohesive governance. 

Q8. (a) Analyze the impact of digital governance initiatives on transparency and accountability in India. 
Ans:
Introduction: Digital governance initiatives, leveraging technology to enhance public service delivery, have significantly impacted transparency and accountability in India, aligning with the Digital India vision.

Body:

1. Enhanced Transparency: Platforms like the RTI portal and e-Governance apps provide access to government data. In 2024, the UMANG app enabled citizens to track welfare schemes, reducing information asymmetry.

2. Accountability Mechanisms: Digital tools like the CPGRAMS portal allow grievance redressal. In 2025, over 2 million complaints were resolved, holding officials accountable.

3. Service Delivery: Initiatives like Aadhaar-linked DBT ensured leak-proof welfare transfers, as seen in 2024 PM-KISAN payments to farmers.

4. Challenges: Digital divides exclude rural populations, and cybersecurity risks, like 2024 data breaches, undermine trust.

5. Participatory Governance: Social media platforms in 2025 enabled citizen feedback on policies, enhancing democratic accountability.

Conclusion: Digital governance has bolstered transparency and accountability by improving access and redressal mechanisms. Bridging digital divides and strengthening cybersecurity are essential for sustained impact. 

Q8. (b) Comment on the role of the Supreme Court in protecting fundamental rights. 
Ans:
Introduction: The Supreme Court of India, as the guardian of the Constitution, plays a pivotal role in protecting fundamental rights through judicial review and progressive rulings.

Body:

1. Judicial Review: The Court strikes down laws violating rights, as in the 2024 ruling against discriminatory labor laws.

2. Expanding Rights: It broadened Article 21’s scope, recognizing privacy (2017) and digital rights in 2025.

3. Protecting Minorities: The 2024 verdict upholding minority educational rights ensured equality under Article 15.

4. Challenges: Judicial delays and executive pushback, as in 2025 surveillance law debates, limit effectiveness.

Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s proactive role in safeguarding fundamental rights strengthens democracy, but timely justice and independence are crucial for its continued impact. 

Q8. (c) Discuss the significance of the National Green Tribunal in addressing environmental challenges. 
Ans:
Introduction: The National Green Tribunal (NGT), established in 2010, addresses environmental challenges through specialized adjudication, promoting sustainable development.

Body:

1. Environmental Justice: The NGT enforces laws like the Environment Protection Act, as seen in its 2024 orders against Delhi’s air pollution.

2. Public Access: It allows citizens to file cases, empowering movements like the 2025 Himalayan deforestation protests.

3. Policy Influence: NGT rulings shape policies, such as 2024 bans on single-use plastics.

4. Challenges: Limited enforcement powers and industrial lobbying, as in 2025 mining disputes, hinder impact.

Conclusion: The NGT is vital for environmental governance, but strengthening its authority and resources is essential for addressing India’s ecological challenges effectively.