Mughal Painting | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The Mughal school of painting is recognized as a unique style that matured in the 17th century, building on a rich tradition.
• This tradition of painting persisted in various forms across India even after the Mughal era.

Historical Context:

• Paintings are mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts, and the Ajanta murals highlight India’s rich pictorial heritage.
• Although this tradition declined after the 8th century, it survived in illustrated Jain palm-leaf manuscripts.

Advancements with Paper:

• The introduction of paper in the 13th century marked a new phase for painters, offering greater freedom in color selection and workspace.
• This led to improvements in miniature paintings, evident in better coloring, composition, and detail.

Regional Developments:

• Gujarat and Malwa were key regions where these advancements in painting were noticed.
• During the Sultanate period, there are no surviving illustrated manuscripts, but historical figures like Amir Khusrau indicate that painting was practiced among the elite.
• Firuz Shah, a Sultan, even had wall paintings in his palace removed.

Persian Influence:

• Meanwhile, a vibrant tradition of painting was evolving in Shiraz, Persia, influenced by Chinese painting styles.
• In the 15th century, as provincial kingdoms like Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur began to patronize the arts, artists and writers migrated from Shiraz to these regions.

Persian and Indian Fusion:

• This migration marked the early interaction between Persian and West Indian painting styles.
• An example of this fusion is the Niamat Nama, or Cookery Book, illustrated in Mandu, showcasing Indian body contours against a Persian backdrop of stylized leaves and plants.

Painting in the Fifteenth Century

Tradition of Painting and Manuscripts before the Mughal Era:

• Previously, it was thought that painting did not thrive during the Delhi Sultanate, and that Mughal illuminated manuscripts were a revival of painting after a long gap since the tenth century.
• Recent evidence suggests the existence of:
• a vibrant tradition of murals and painted cloth in the 13th and 14th centuries,
• a tradition of Quranic calligraphy lasting until the end of the 14th century,
• and a tradition of illustrated Persian and Awadhi manuscripts, likely beginning in the early 15th century.
• Numerous illustrated manuscripts from the 15th to 16th century have been identified, with some commissioned by independent patrons outside the Sultanate court.
• Examples from independent patrons include:
• Bostan of S’adi, illustrated by Hajji Mahmud
• Ni’mat Nama (a book on cookery)
• Miftah al Fuzala by Muhammed Shadiiadi
• These manuscripts were created in Mandu (Malwa) during the late 15th century.
• An example from a court-related patron is the illustrated manuscript of Laur Chanda (in Awadhi), executed for a seemingly independent patron.
• Thus, by the time the Mughals arrived in India, there was a vibrant tradition of painting, primarily focused on illuminating manuscripts, facilitated by the use of paper as a new material.

Mughal School of Painting

Mughal School of Painting:

• The Mughal school of painting is a unique style that emerged during the Mughal era in India.
• It primarily focused on creating miniatures, which are small, detailed paintings.
• These miniatures were often used for book illustrations, telling stories through images, a style known as narrative painting.
• Alternatively, they were crafted as individual pieces to be kept in albums, a practice called album painting.
• The Mughal school developed from a harmonious blend of Persian and Indian painting traditions, combining elements from both to create a distinct artistic style.

Babur

• Babur was the founder of Mughal rule in India, starting in 1526.
• He ruled for only four years and did not contribute to the growth of painting during his reign.

Humayun

• Humayun, after being forced out of India by Sher Shah in 1540, found refuge at the court of Shab Tahmasp in Persia.
• During his time in Persia, he developed a deep appreciation for the art of painting.
• Strongly influenced by Persian art, Humayun commissioned two Persian masters, Mir Syed Ali and Khwaja Abdus Samad, to illustrate manuscripts for him. These artists later joined Humayun's entourage when he returned to India.
• Humayun played a crucial role in the evolution of Mughal painting, with several key features of the style emerging during his period.
• One significant painting from this time is titled ‘Princes of the House of Timur’, dated around 1550. It is notable for its large size and execution on cloth, a format that was unusual even in Persia and may be linked to Mongol traditions.
• The Persian masters Abdus Samad and Mir Sayid Ali led the imperial atelier in India during the early stages of Mughal painting, with many artists, mainly Hindus, contributing to large commissions.
• Mughal painting reached new heights in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, with masterpieces created by renowned artists such as Basawan, Lal, Miskin, Kesu Das, and Daswanth.

Akbar

• Akbar had a deep passion for painting, and during his reign, he established the Tasvir Khana, an Imperial painting workshop (karkhana) where artists created artworks.
• The Tasvir Khana was initially led by Abdul Samad and was a significant part of Akbar's court.

Support for Artists:

• Abul Fazl, a court historian, noted Akbar's encouragement of painting from a young age.
• Although only seventeen artists were mentioned by Abul Fazl, research shows that many more worked in the Tasvir Khana.
• S.P. Verma identified 225 artists who contributed to Akbar's atelier, with most being Hindus.

Artist Recognition:

• Artists from various backgrounds, including low-caste individuals, were recognized for their skills. For example, Daswant, the son of a Kahar (palki-bearer), became a royal artist.
• Artists were supported bygilders, linedrawers, and pagers.
• Govardhan was a prominent painter during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.
• Farrukh Beg, a Persian-born Mughal painter, created notable works like the Gulshan Album.

Artists' Compensation and Collaboration:

• Artists received monthly salaries and additional rewards based on the quality of their work, which was regularly presented to the Emperor.
• Basic materials were provided to the painters, and the lowest-paid workers earned between 600 to 1200 dams per month.
• Some paintings were collaborative efforts involving two or three artists.For instance, in one painting from the Akbarnama, four artists contributed.
• Different artists often handled sketching and coloring tasks separately.

Supervision and Organization:

• The atelier was overseen by daroghas and clerks, who ensured that materials were readily available and monitored the artists' progress.
• They also organized regular presentations of the artists' works to the Emperor.

Style and Technique

• Early illustrations show a clear influence from the Persian tradition, characterized by:
• Symmetrical compositions
• Restricted movement of figures
• Fineness of lines in drawings
• Flat depiction of architectural columns
• Profuse embellishment of buildings, resembling jewels

Evolution of Distinct Character in Later Paintings

• Over time, paintings developed a unique character, becoming more eclectic.
• This new style was a blend of Persian, Indian, and subtle European influences.

Distinctive Features

Timeframe: 

• The Mughal style became recognizable within fifteen years of Akbar establishing the royal atelier, achieving a distinctive form by around 1590.

Characteristics: The style was marked by:

• Naturalism and rhythm
• Daily objects in Indian forms
• Picture space with subsidiary background scenes
• Vigorous action and movement
• Lush foliage and vibrant flowers

Fusion of Traditions: 

• Mughal paintings under Akbar blended Persian and Indian traditions, showcasing original style with influences.

Action and Movement: 

• Unique to Mughal art, this aspect was absent in pre-Mughal Indian and Persian art.

Historical Subject Matter: 
Mughal painting, particularly under Akbar, focused on historical themes, distinguishing it from Persian and Indian styles. Common themes included:

• Daily court events
• Portraits of prominent figures

Themes Covered by Painters: 

• War, hunting scenes, mythical beings, construction activities, and portrait painting.

Portraiture: 

• Akbar mandated likenesses of all realm grandees and sat for his own portrait. Abul Fazl praised Basawan's excellence in drawing features and portrait painting.

Collaboration: 

• Painters worked together on pictures, with different artists handling outlines, colors, and faces. Specialization was limited, and artists could switch roles.

Emergence of Style Differences: 

• Despite the collaborative nature, distinct styles began to emerge. The Akbari period established painting firmly, moving away from Persian rigidity and adopting Indian plasticity for a three-dimensional effect.

Inclusion of Indian Elements: 

• Indian trees, flowers, buildings, and colors like peacock blue and Indian red were incorporated. Improvements in color mixing were also made.

European Influence: 

• European painting was introduced at Akbar's court by Portuguese priests. Abul Fazl praised European painting skills, influencing Indian artists to adopt principles like foreshortening and perspective, though full mastery was not achieved.

Perspective Techniques: 

• Distant objects were often shown vertically instead of foreshortened. The earlier bird's eye-view perspective was replaced by a circular effect.

Jahangir

• He had a deep interest in painting art, and under his influence, Mughal painting reached its peak.
• During Jahangir's reign, the Persian and Indian styles of painting were fully blended, and Indian painting became free from foreign influences.
• Jahangir was passionate about painting even as a prince. He had his own studio separate from Akbar's large workshop.
• Under his rule, narrative painting became less important compared to individual pictures and albums.
• Jahangir had a keen aesthetic sense and appreciated various types of paintings. He was a naturalist who preferred paintings of hunting scenes, birds, and flowers.
• Whenever he encountered a strange animal or bird, his artists would paint it immediately. As a result, we have paintings of birds and animals in a very realistic manner.
• He also continued the tradition of portraiture.
• Jahangir had a sharp eye and could recognize different painters just by looking at their paintings.
• Aside from painting hunting, battle, and court scenes, Jahangir's era saw significant progress in portrait painting and paintings of animals, flowers, and other subjects.
• Ustad Mansur was famous for his floral paintings, with The Red Blossoms being one of his most well-known works.

Introduction of New Styles

• During Jahangir's rule, individual pictures became more important than manuscripts in Mughal art.
• Jahangir personally involved in the royal studio, making artistic decisions and introducing his stylistic preferences.
• Notable changes in painting style included finer brushwork and lighter colors.
• Jahangir was significantly influenced by European painting, especially through gifts from the English Crown.
• He encouraged the use of single-point perspective, a departure from the traditional multi-layered style.
• Preferred subjects included events from his life, individual portraits, and studies of nature like birds, flowers, and animals.
• The Jahangirnama, an autobiographical account, features several paintings from this period.

Two Key Elements in Mughal Painting Style (17th Century)

• Formalist Style: Emphasizing realistic painting and contemporary reality, with a focus on precision.
• Broad Margins: Decorated with flora, human figures, and intricate plant motifs.

Nur Jahan: A Significant Figure in Mughal Art

• Despite lively studies of animals and birds, Mughal painters showed little independent interest in nature.
• Background elements like trees, birds, streams, and hillocks were common in hunting and war scenes, with a notable tonal and rounded effect on tree trunks.
• Nur Jahan, Jahangir's wife, played a crucial role in promoting Mughal painting during this period.

Shah Jahan

• Shah Jahan's Patronage of Painting: Shah Jahan continued to support painting but lacked Jahangir's keen aesthetic sense.
• Artistic Characteristics: Under his reign, there was an abundance of court scenes with a lavish use of gold. Colors became more decorative, with gold frequently used for embellishment.
• Continued Tradition: Shah Jahan, while a great patron of architecture, did not neglect painting. The tradition of portraits, albums, and book illustrations continued, though paintings became progressively cold and rigid.
• Thematic Elements: Paintings from his period depicted charming love scenes, portraits of female members, musical parties, lovers in intimate poses in gardens and terraces, ascetics around a fire, superimposed animals, and scenes of performing acrobats.

Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb, who took over after Shah Jahan, started his reign on a harsh note by executing his brothers and imprisoning his father.
• During his rule, the arts were largely neglected.
• Though painting did not completely cease, it lost the Emperor's patronage and became limited to the studios of nobles.
• There are some commissioned portraits of nobles and their relatives from the Rajput principalities.
• A significant number of karkhana records (related to paintings) can be found in the Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner.
• There are also a few notable pictures of the emperor during his military campaigns.
• The skill of the painters is apparent, but the paintings are more formal and lack the earlier vibrancy.
• Aurangzeb's disinterest in painting caused artists to disperse across the country, which contributed to the development of painting in Rajasthan and the Punjab hills.
• In the early 18th century, many artists trained in the Mughal style left the imperial workshop to work at Rajput courts, including artists like Bhawanidas and his son Dalchand.
• These migrating painters also played a role in the development of Patna Kalam painting.

Later Mughal Emperor

• During Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela' (1719-48), there was a renewed interest in depicting pleasure-loving scenes in Mughal painting. However, many painters from the imperial studio began migrating to provincial courts.
• By the time of Shah Alam II (1759-1806), Mughal painting had lost its former glory.
• Other schools of Indian painting had emerged, such as Rajput painting in the royal courts of Rajputana and the Company style influenced by Western styles in cities ruled by the British East India Company.

Mughal Painting Examples:

• Woman with a Veena: A Mughal woman playing a veena, a traditional musical instrument.
• Mughal Prince and Ladies: A scene depicting a Mughal prince with ladies in a garden setting.
• Shah Jahan Portrait: Shah Jahan on a terrace holding a pendant set with his portrait.
• Portrait of Bahadur Shah: A portrait of Bahadur Shah, a Mughal emperor.
• Akbar Riding an Elephant: A historical scene of Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I, pursuing another elephant across a collapsing bridge of boats.
• Payag Princess on Elephant: A depiction of a princess on an elephant.

European Impact on Mughal Painting

• In the later phases of the 17th century, Mughal painting began to show influence from European art.
• Mughal painters incorporated some themes and adopted certain techniques from European artists.
• A.J. Qaisar noted that many European paintings were copied, adapted, or reinterpreted by Mughal painters.
• Mughal emperors like Jahangir and Dara Shikoh, along with nobles, collected and preserved original European prints in their albums.
• Mughal court painters, exposed to European paintings, initially replicated them with great precision, as noted by contemporary European travelers.
• Besides imitation, Mughal artists experimented by creating new paintings based on subjects from European works.
• One noticeable feature in some Mughal paintings was the attempt to create a three-dimensional effect, reflecting the impact of European techniques.
• Mughal painters also adopted the European practice of using light and shade effects, particularly in battle scenes.
• Motifs such as 'hals', winged angels, and roaring clouds in Mughal paintings were influenced by European art.
• Jahangir encouraged his artists to use single-point perspective, a technique favored by European artists, moving away from the traditional multi-layered style of miniatures.
• However, the European technique of oil painting did not appeal to the Mughals, and there are no surviving works from this period created in oil.

Outside influence on Mughal painting

• Mughal painting was shaped by Persian (Iranian) influence.
• European influence became significant, especially after the arrival of Europeans in India.
• Indian artistic traditions also played a crucial role in the development of Mughal painting.

Iranian influence

• Flat Effect/2D Effect: This refers to artworks that appear flat and lack a strong sense of depth, giving them a two-dimensional look.
• Mongolian Facial Features: Persian painters, influenced by Chinese art through Mongolian connections, sometimes depicted facial features with a Mongolian style. However, this influence gradually lessened over time.
• Scenes of Nature: Nature scenes became prominent, with artists focusing on depicting various elements of the natural world.
• Depiction of Hills, Gardens, Fountains, Trees, Landscape: Artists began to portray a variety of natural and landscaped elements, including hills, gardens, fountains, trees, and expansive landscapes.
• Iranian Costumes: Traditional Iranian costumes were commonly depicted in artworks, showcasing the clothing styles of the time.

European influence

3-D Effect/Shading in Mughal Paintings:
Origin: Started from the time of Akbar and continued in later Mughal periods.

Techniques Used:

• Light and Shade: Especially noticeable in action scenes, creating a sense of depth and realism.
• Depiction of Clouds: Roaring clouds are painted to add drama and atmosphere.
• Fore-shortening: Objects that are closer are shown larger, while those farther away are smaller, enhancing the 3-D effect.
• European Symbols: Incorporation of European symbols and motifs like crosses and angels.
• Color Schemes: Use of more naturalistic color schemes, making the paintings vibrant and lifelike.

Influences from European Painting Traditions

• Idea of Idealism: European influence brought a focus on idealized forms and beauty in paintings.
• Oil Painting: Introduction of oil painting techniques, offering a different texture and depth to artworks.
• Picturesque: Adoption of the picturesque approach, emphasizing beauty in landscape and composition.
• Landscape Paintings: Artists like Thomas Daniel introduced landscape paintings, such as scenes of the Yamuna River, showcasing natural beauty.
• Style of Portraiture: Evolution in the style of portraiture, influenced by European methods and aesthetics.
• Tradition of Painting History: Incorporation of the tradition of painting historical events and narratives, adding a new dimension to Mughal art.

Indian influences

• Use of deep colors like deep red and deep blue.
• Introduction of Indian colors such as peacock blue and Indian red. Efforts were made to improve color mixing.
• Themes included illustrations from the Mahabharata and contemporary social and religious themes.
• Plastic roundness was introduced during the Akbar period to create a 3D effect instead of the flat 2D effect.
• Inclusion of Indian trees, flowers, and buildings in paintings.
• Indian painters never fully mastered the art of perspective, which impacted the overall effect of the paintings.

“Mughal painting was not limited to court scenes only but encompassed all aspects of life in Mughal India.” In the light of given statement, give description of paintings in Mughal India which shows activities outside court scenes with examples. 

Mughal School of Painting:

• The Mughal school of painting emerged as a unique style, primarily focused on miniatures. These miniatures were either used as book illustrations (narrative painting) or created as standalone pieces to be kept in albums (album painting).
• This school of painting developed from a harmonious blend of Persian and Indian painting traditions.

Examples of Court Scenes in Painting:

• Abu’l Fazl presenting the completedAkbar Namamanuscript to his patron.
• Shah Jahan honouring Prince Aurangzeb at Agra before his wedding, as depicted in a painting by Payag in the Badshah Nama.
• Prince Khurram being weighed in precious metals during a ceremony called jashn-i wazn or tula dan from Jahangir’s memoirs.
• Scenes from Dara Shukoh’s wedding.
• Celebration of the birth of Prince Salim at Fatehpur Sikri, painted by Ramdas for the Akbar Nama.
• Jahangir’s dream, where Abu’l Hasan was commissioned to paint a dream the emperor had. The scene shows Jahangir and Shah Abbas in a friendly embrace, standing on a lion and cattle sitting together.
• Religious debates in the court, with Padre Rudolf Acquaviva, the leader of the first Jesuit mission, featured in the painting.

Paintings Depicting Scenes Outside the Court:

• An eighteenth-century painting of travellers gathered around a campfire.
• A seventeenth-century painting of Bernier in European clothes.
• A painting of Tavernier in Indian clothes.
• A painting of travellers at rest.
• A Mughal painting of Emperor Jahangir with a Jogi.
• A seventeenth-century painting of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya and his disciple Amir Khusrau.
• Shaikhs greeting Mughal emperor Jahangir during his pilgrimage to Ajmer, painted by Manohar around 1615.
• Qawwali at the dargah of Nizamuddin Auliya.
• Roadside musicians in a seventeenth-century Mughal painting, likely singing the compositions of the sants.
• A rural scene with people engaged in agricultural work and irrigation, from a seventeenth-century Mughal painting.
• An early nineteenth-century painting of a village in Punjab with men and women at work.
• An early nineteenth-century painting of a meeting between village elders and tax collectors.
• A seventeenth-century painting depicting textile production.
• A shroff at work.
• A woman spinning thread.
• The construction of Fatehpur Sikri, with women crushing stones.
• Women carrying loads, often migrant women from nearby villages, working at construction sites.
• A painting of Shah Jahan hunting nilgais from theBadshah Nama, symbolizing ideal justice.
• A peasant and a hunter listening to a sufi singer.
• Textiles produced in the subcontinent for European markets.
• A seventeenth-century painting of jewellers.
• A painting of a woman selling sweets.
• An eighteenth-century depiction of Humayun’s wife Nadira crossing the desert of Rajasthan.
• A Mughal kitabkhana.
• A painting by Abu’l Hasan showing Jahangir in resplendent clothes and jewels, holding a portrait of his father Akbar, who is dressed in white and offering a globe, symbolizing dynastic authority.
• Jahangir presenting Prince Khurram with a turban jewel, a scene from the Badshah Nama painted by Payag around 1640, featuring a lion and cattle sitting together, symbolizing justice.
• Jahangir shooting the figure of poverty in a painting by Abu’l Hasan, with the target enveloped in a dark cloud and the Chain of Justice descending from heaven.
• The siege of Qandahar.
• Many Mughal manuscripts included drawings of birds.
• A Mughal painting of squirrels on a tree.