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Social reform movements in the 19th & early 20th century

• The social reform movements that emerged in India during the 19th century were a response to the challenges faced by colonial Indian society. Although pre-colonial India had witnessed efforts to combat social discrimination through the Bhakti, Sufi, and Buddhism movements, the 19th-century attempts at social reform were distinct in their eclectic mix of ideas and fusion of contemporary western liberalism with a fresh perspective on classic literature.
• According to sociologist Satish Saberwal, the contemporary framework for change in colonial India had three components. Firstly, new technologies such as the printing press, telegraph, steamship, and railways accelerated different forms of communication, leading to the spread of new ideas across the country. Secondly, there were established social organizations like the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal, the Arya Samaj in Punjab, and the All-India Muslim Ladies Conference. Finally, Indian reformers engaged in discussions not only in open forums but also in open media like newspapers and journals.
• The social reform movements led to the emergence of new concepts of liberalism and freedom, the value of education, and the hotly contested topic of women's education. The reformers engaged in lively discussions about tradition and modernity, leading to a time of reflection, reinterpretation, and intellectual and social development.
• Although the various social reform movements shared some common themes, there were also notable differences, with some focused on the issues faced by middle-class and upper-caste women and men, while others were concerned with the injustices experienced by castes subjected to discrimination. Community debates were frequent during this time, with some advocating for social reforms such as the Brahmo Samaj's opposition to sati, while others petitioned the British claiming that reformers had no right to interpret sacred texts.

Major Cultural Changes In India

Sanskritisation

• The term "sanskritization" was coined by M.N. Srinivas.
• It refers to the process by which a lower caste, tribe, or group adopts the traditions, beliefs, ideologies, and way of life of a higher caste.
• However, research has shown that this process operates differently in various regions of the country.
• In areas where non-Sanskritic castes predominate, the culture of the entire region undergoes some Sanskritization.

Criticism of Sanskritisation

• One criticism of Sanskritisation is that it overstates social mobility and has no structural impact.
• Second, it is criticised for accepting the ways of the upper castes as superior and those of the lower castes as inferior.
• Third, it supports a system based on inequality and exclusion.
• Fourth, it encourages behaviours like the seclusion of girls and women, the use of dowries as bride prices, and the practise of caste discrimination against other groups.
• Finally, it erodes the essential elements of Dalit culture and society, devaluing the labour performed by lower castes and making it appear shameful.

Westernisation

M.N. Srinivas coined the term "Westernization" to describe the changes in Indian society and culture brought about by more than 150 years of British rule. This change can be seen in technology, institutions, ideology, and values. Unlike the "lower castes," who were drawn to Sanskrit culture, the "upper castes" were attracted to Western culture.

There were different forms of Westernization:

• One type of Westernization refers to a subculture that emerged among a minority group of Indians who were first exposed to Western culture. They embraced Western cognitive patterns, lifestyles, and supported its growth. This group comprised many of the reformers of the early 19th century.
• Moreover, the general spread of Western cultural traits like the use of new technology, clothing, and food has led to changes in people's general habits and styles. A significant portion of middle-class homes across the country now have televisions, refrigerators, sofas, dining tables, and chairs.
• The West also influenced Indian art and literature, and artists like Bankimchandra Chattopadhya, Abanindranath Tagore, Chandu Menon, and Ravi Varma struggled with the colonial encounter. The box below shows how indigenous and Western traditions have influenced the style, technique, and overall theme of an artist like Ravi Varma.

Secularization and Modernization

• The concept of modernization gained popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries and was initially used to describe technological and manufacturing advancements. However, its meaning evolved over time and became associated with desirable values. While Western societies had their own histories of modernization and secularization, these developments in India have been different, as discussed earlier in this chapter.
• As circumstances change, people's attitudes towards the environment have also improved. Religion and nature are viewed as separate entities, and there is a greater emphasis on preserving the environment. To participate in the global village, it is important to uphold traditions while modernizing them. This includes abandoning outdated practices like child marriage and promoting new concepts such as educating girls.
• Secularism and modernity are two sides of the same coin, and they are interconnected. In the West, secularization has typically led to a decline in religious influence. However, in India, ritual is still connected to achieving secular goals. Despite the assumption that secularization will continue to increase in modern societies, the value of religion has not declined as much as expected, as practices like honour killings and dowry still exist.
• The caste system in ancient India was heavily influenced by religious beliefs about purity and pollution. However, in modern India, caste associations and political parties have formed, and they try to impose their demands on the government. As a result, some people perceive that caste has become secularized.