NCERT Summary: Doing Sociology: Research Methods (Class 11) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• Sociology is a field that deals with various issues related to society more than any other field. Since we all live in society, we are all familiar with social groupings, organizations, norms, relationships, and other sociological concepts.
• Sociology is a valuable tool for understanding the problems that affect us both as individuals and as members of larger organizations.
• Sociology is concerned with the study of people's lives. Sociologists seek to understand not only what bystanders observe but also the beliefs and attitudes of those who participate in various social activities such as friendship, religion, or market trading. Sociologists try to view the world through the eyes of their subjects.
• Sociological research provides data and information that can be used as evidence to support a claim. This evidence comes from multiple sources, and research provides the means to collect and analyze sociological data.

Some Methodological Concerns

Let's start by examining how sociologists aim to produce knowledge that qualifies as scientific.

Objectivity and subjectivity in sociology

In order to achieve objectivity, it's necessary to set aside our individual emotions or opinions about a matter. Conversely, the term "subjective" pertains to something that's based on personal beliefs and inclinations.

Objectivity

• Social scientists study the social dimension of human connections - the world they inhabit. This presents exceptional difficulties for achieving objectivity in a social science like sociology.
• The primary concern is partiality, given that sociologists are also part of society and share the same preferences and aversions as others.
• For instance, when examining a caste or religious group other than their own, sociologists may be impacted by attitudes towards that group prevailing in their own social environment, either currently or previously.

How do sociologists protect themselves from these dangers?

• Through rigorous and persistent questioning of one's own ideas and emotions related to the research topic.
• Self-reflexivity involves adopting an outsider's viewpoint and considering the research through the perspective of others. However, even if sociologists practice self-reflexivity, there's always a possibility of unconscious bias. To address this, sociologists openly disclose any relevant aspects of their own social history that may potentially influence their opinions on the topic being investigated. This alerts readers to the potential for bias and allows them to mentally account for it while reviewing the research paper.
• By actively adopting the perspectives of the individuals under examination.
• Maintaining a comprehensive record of all actions taken, procedures followed, and citing all sources of evidence in a formal manner.

Subjectivity

• Subjectivity pertains to the cognitive content that originates from the thinking subject, rather than the object of thought.
• Individuals attach significance to their actions, and during sociological investigation, the researcher must acknowledge and attempt to decipher these meanings.
• Sociological research is driven by values that are cultural products, and knowledge status is subject to variation across cultures due to its subjective character.
• When undertaking social research, it's important for the sociologist to not overlook the subjectivity inherent in the social realm. Instead, they should utilize it to decipher meanings that can furnish solutions to the research inquiries.

Multiple methods and choice of methods

Given the existence of multiple truths and perspectives, it's not surprising that there are different methodologies in sociology. As a result, there is no one definitive approach to uncovering social truth. Each methodology has its own strengths and weaknesses, and therefore, debating the superiority or inferiority of various methods is futile.

Quantitative vs qualitative research

• Quantitative research focuses on variables that can be enumerated or measured.
• Qualitative research centers on more elusive variables that are harder to quantify, such as attitudes, emotions, values, and so forth. Examples of qualitative research methods include interviews, observations, and content analysis of items like paintings or advertisements.

Primary research vs. secondary research

• Primary research aims to produce fresh or "primary" data, with interviews being a key source of primary data.
• Secondary research relies on pre-existing or "secondary" data that has already been gathered, such as documents, records, and artifacts. Historical methods frequently incorporate secondary material collected in archives.

Survey

• A survey is an attempt to gain a broad perspective on a subject by gathering information from a carefully chosen representative sample of people.
• The individuals who provide information in response to the researchers' questions are typically referred to as "respondents."
• Survey research is typically conducted by large teams, including investigators who plan and design the study, as well as their associates and assistants.
• Survey questions can be posed through telephone conversations, in-person visits by the investigators, or in writing through questionnaires sent by post.
• Today, the internet and various other media are also used to collect data.
• Surveys enable researchers to generalize findings to a larger population while only studying a small proportion of that population.
• Surveys typically require a manageable investment of time, effort, and resources.

Survey Method

A survey is a type of quantitative research at a macro level, aimed at presenting a condensed view of a specific subject. Questionnaires serve as the primary tool for data collection in surveys, which aim to gather information about people's views, beliefs, and behaviors. The method involves gathering standardized data from the population being studied. This standardization is achieved by asking all respondents the same questions in the same order, ensuring consistency in the data obtained.

Disadvantages of Survey

• The trade-off for conducting a survey is that it sacrifices depth of coverage for breadth of information.
• Due to time limitations with each respondent, it may be difficult to gather in-depth information through a survey.
• Because the survey questionnaire is administered by multiple investigators, it can be challenging to ensure that complex or nuanced questions are asked consistently.
• Variations in the way questions are asked or answers are recorded may introduce errors in the data.
• Since there is no established relationship between the investigators and the respondents, personal or sensitive questions may not be appropriate or may not yield truthful answers, leading to what are called non-sampling errors.
• A survey's success depends on tightly structured and inflexible questions.
• The success of a survey largely depends on the nature of interactions between investigators and respondents, and the willingness of the latter to participate and provide accurate responses.

Interviews

• Essentially, it involves a directed conversation between the researcher and the respondent.
• It falls in between the structured questionnaire format of surveys and completely open-ended interactions such as participant observation.
• Its primary benefit is the high degree of adaptability in the format.
• Questions can be reformulated, the order can be changed, and subjects can be added or removed based on the progress of the conversation.
• There are different styles of conducting interviews, with some being more loosely structured and others more rigidly structured.
• The method of recording interviews can also vary, from video or audio recordings to detailed note-taking or relying on memory.
• The use of recorders can make respondents uneasy and formalize the conversation.
• The physical and social circumstances in which the interview takes place can sometimes dictate the mode of the interview.
• Using less comprehensive methods of record-keeping can sometimes result in important information going unnoticed or not recorded.
• The way in which the interview is transcribed and edited can vary widely depending on the researcher's preferences.
• Interviews are often used as a supplementary method, particularly in participant observation.
• Lengthy conversations can provide context and clarification for accompanying material.
• In-depth interviews can enhance the findings of surveys.
• However, their effectiveness depends on the researcher's personalized access and the level of rapport and mutual trust between the researcher and respondent.

Disadvantages of Interviews

• Time-consuming: Conducting interviews can be time-consuming, both in terms of setting them up and actually conducting them. This can be a challenge for students who have limited time in class or need to complete the research project within a set deadline.
• Limited sample size: Depending on the number of students in the class and the availability of interviewees, it may be difficult to obtain a large enough sample size to draw meaningful conclusions. This can limit the scope of the research project and make it difficult to generalize findings to a larger population.
• Difficulty in finding participants: Finding willing and appropriate participants for the interviews can be a challenge, especially if the research topic is sensitive or controversial.
• Interviewer bias: The interviewer's personal beliefs, attitudes, and biases can unintentionally influence the responses of the interviewee, leading to unreliable data.