New Kings & Kingdoms Summary Class 7 History

The Emergence of New Dynasties

• By the seventh century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.

The Rashtrakutas

• At first, they were under the control of the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
• In the mid-eighth century, a Rashtrakuta leader named Dantidurga defeated his Chalukya ruler and carried out a ritual called hiranya-garbha (meaning the golden womb). This ritual, assisted by Brahmanas, was believed to enable the 'rebirth' of the performer as a Kshatriya, regardless of their birth status.
• For example, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who abandoned their traditional roles and took up arms, successfully founding kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan.

Administration in the Kingdoms

• Many of these new kings often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
• Revenue in the form of land rent was collected from peasants, cattle-keepers and artisans and Traders.

Prashastis and Land Grants

• Prashastis were inscriptions that portrayed the image kings wanted to show of themselves.
• These were written by knowledgeable Brahmanas, who were rewarded with land grants.

Warfare for Wealth

Tripartite Struggle

• Kanauj, located in the Ganga valley, was a significant city during this period.
• For centuries, the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control of Kanauj, a conflict known as the “tripartite struggle.”

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni

• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, who ruled from 997 to 1030, invaded the subcontinent 17 times (from 1000 to 1025) driven by religious motives. He targeted wealthy temples, including the one at Somnath in Gujarat. Much of the wealth he took was used to build an impressive capital city at Ghazni.

Chahamanas or the Chauhans

• The Chahamanas, also known as the Chauhans, ruled around Delhi and Ajmer and sought to expand their influence to the west and east, facing opposition from the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
• Their notable ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated a Turk ruler called Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but was defeated by him the following year in 1192.

• Rulers also aimed to show their power and wealth by constructing large temples. Therefore, when attacking each other's kingdoms, they often targeted these temples, which were sometimes very rich.

The Cholas

• Initially, they were under the control of the Pallava kings in Kanchipuram.
• In the mid-ninth century, Vijayalaya from the Chola lineage in Uraiyur seized the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar.
• His successors expanded the kingdom by conquering nearby areas, incorporating the territories of the Pandyan and Pallava.
• The most notable Chola ruler was Rajaraja I, who took the throne in 985, significantly enlarging the empire and reorganising its administration. His son Rajendra I followed his father's example, invading the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and parts of Southeast Asia, creating a strong navy for these missions.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

• The grand temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, constructed by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are exceptional examples of architecture and sculpture. Chola temples often became the heart of settlements that developed around them, serving as hubs for craft production.

Agriculture and Irrigation

• The Kaveri River splits into smaller channels before reaching the Bay of Bengal, with water from these channels being vital for farming, especially for rice cultivation. While agriculture had existed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it wasn’t until the fifth or sixth century that this region was extensively cultivated.
• Some areas required clearing of forests, while others needed land to be levelled. In the delta, embankments were built to stop flooding, and canals were dug to supply water to fields. Many regions could grow two crops annually.
• In many instances, artificial watering of crops was necessary. Various irrigation methods were employed, such as digging wells and building large tanks to collect rainwater.

The Administration of the Empire

• Settlements of farmers, known as ur, thrived due to the spread of irrigation agriculture.
• Wealthy farmers had significant influence over local affairs within the nadu, under the oversight of the central Chola government. The Chola rulers granted titles like muvendavelan (a peasant serving three kings) and araiyar (chief) to some wealthy landowners, recognising their status and assigning them important state roles.
• Land grants to Brahmanas were managed by a council or sabha of notable Brahmana landholders.