NCERT Textbook: India after Independence - History for UPSC CSE

 Page 1


OUR PASTS – III 128
India After Independence
10
A New and Divided Nation
When India became independent in August 1947, it
faced a series of very great challenges. As a result of
Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country
from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be
found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem
of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled
by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be
persuaded to join the new nation. The problems of the
refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed
immediately. In the longer term, the new nation had to
adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes
and expectations of its population.
Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 –  Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being immersed in Allahabad, February 1948
Less than six months after independence the nation was in mourning. On 30 January 1948, Mahatma
Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction
that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony. That evening, a stunned nation heard Jawaharlal
Nehru’s moving statement over All India Radio: “Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives
and there is darkness everywhere …  our beloved leader …  the Father of the Nation is no more.”
2022-23
Page 2


OUR PASTS – III 128
India After Independence
10
A New and Divided Nation
When India became independent in August 1947, it
faced a series of very great challenges. As a result of
Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country
from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be
found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem
of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled
by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be
persuaded to join the new nation. The problems of the
refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed
immediately. In the longer term, the new nation had to
adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes
and expectations of its population.
Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 –  Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being immersed in Allahabad, February 1948
Less than six months after independence the nation was in mourning. On 30 January 1948, Mahatma
Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction
that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony. That evening, a stunned nation heard Jawaharlal
Nehru’s moving statement over All India Radio: “Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives
and there is darkness everywhere …  our beloved leader …  the Father of the Nation is no more.”
2022-23
129
Activity
Imagine that you are a
British administrator
leaving India in 1947.
You are writing a letter
home where you discuss
what is likely to happen
to India without the
British. What would be
your views about the
future of India?
†
Franchise – The right to
vote
India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345
million. It was also divided. There were divisions
between high castes and low castes, between the
majority Hindu community and Indians who practised
other faiths. The citizens of this vast land spoke many
different languages, wore many different kinds of dress,
ate different kinds of food and practised different
professions. How could they be made to live together in
one nation-state?
To the problem of unity was added the problem of
development. At Independence, the vast majority of
Indians lived in the villages. Farmers and peasants
depended on the monsoon for their survival. So did the
non-farm sector of the rural economy, for if the crops
failed, barbers, carpenters, weavers and other service
groups would not get paid for their services either. In
the cities, factory workers lived in crowded slums with
little access to education or health care. Clearly, the
new nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by
increasing the productivity of agriculture and by
promoting new, job-creating industries.
Unity and development had to go hand in hand. If
the divisions between different sections of India were
not healed, they could result in violent and costly
conflicts – high castes fighting with low castes, Hindus
with Muslims and so on. At the same time, if the fruits
of economic development did not reach the broad masses
of the population, it could create fresh divisions – for
example, between the rich and the poor, between cities
and the countryside, between regions of India that were
prosperous and regions that lagged behind.
A Constitution is Written
Between December 1946 and November 1949, some
three hundred Indians had a series of meetings on
the country’s political future. The meetings of this
“Constituent Assembly” were held in New Delhi, but
the participants came from all over India, and from
different political parties. These discussions resulted
in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came
into effect on 26 January 1950.
One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of
universal adult franchise. All Indians above the age of
21 would be allowed to vote in state and national
elections. This was a revolutionary step – for never before
had Indians been allowed to choose their own leaders.
In other countries, such as the United Kingdom and
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
2022-23
Page 3


OUR PASTS – III 128
India After Independence
10
A New and Divided Nation
When India became independent in August 1947, it
faced a series of very great challenges. As a result of
Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country
from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be
found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem
of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled
by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be
persuaded to join the new nation. The problems of the
refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed
immediately. In the longer term, the new nation had to
adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes
and expectations of its population.
Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 –  Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being immersed in Allahabad, February 1948
Less than six months after independence the nation was in mourning. On 30 January 1948, Mahatma
Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction
that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony. That evening, a stunned nation heard Jawaharlal
Nehru’s moving statement over All India Radio: “Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives
and there is darkness everywhere …  our beloved leader …  the Father of the Nation is no more.”
2022-23
129
Activity
Imagine that you are a
British administrator
leaving India in 1947.
You are writing a letter
home where you discuss
what is likely to happen
to India without the
British. What would be
your views about the
future of India?
†
Franchise – The right to
vote
India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345
million. It was also divided. There were divisions
between high castes and low castes, between the
majority Hindu community and Indians who practised
other faiths. The citizens of this vast land spoke many
different languages, wore many different kinds of dress,
ate different kinds of food and practised different
professions. How could they be made to live together in
one nation-state?
To the problem of unity was added the problem of
development. At Independence, the vast majority of
Indians lived in the villages. Farmers and peasants
depended on the monsoon for their survival. So did the
non-farm sector of the rural economy, for if the crops
failed, barbers, carpenters, weavers and other service
groups would not get paid for their services either. In
the cities, factory workers lived in crowded slums with
little access to education or health care. Clearly, the
new nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by
increasing the productivity of agriculture and by
promoting new, job-creating industries.
Unity and development had to go hand in hand. If
the divisions between different sections of India were
not healed, they could result in violent and costly
conflicts – high castes fighting with low castes, Hindus
with Muslims and so on. At the same time, if the fruits
of economic development did not reach the broad masses
of the population, it could create fresh divisions – for
example, between the rich and the poor, between cities
and the countryside, between regions of India that were
prosperous and regions that lagged behind.
A Constitution is Written
Between December 1946 and November 1949, some
three hundred Indians had a series of meetings on
the country’s political future. The meetings of this
“Constituent Assembly” were held in New Delhi, but
the participants came from all over India, and from
different political parties. These discussions resulted
in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came
into effect on 26 January 1950.
One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of
universal adult franchise. All Indians above the age of
21 would be allowed to vote in state and national
elections. This was a revolutionary step – for never before
had Indians been allowed to choose their own leaders.
In other countries, such as the United Kingdom and
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
2022-23
OUR PASTS – III 130
Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 – Jawaharlal Nehru
introducing the resolution that
outlined the objectives of the
Constitution
the United States, this right had been granted in stages.
First only men of property had the vote. Then men who
were educated were also added on. Working-class men
got the vote only after a long struggle. Finally, after a
bitter struggle of their own, American and British women
were granted the vote. On the other hand, soon after
Independence, India chose to grant this right to all its
citizens regardless of gender, class or education.
A second feature of the Constitution was that it
guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens,
regardless of their caste or religious affiliation. There
were some Indians who wished that the political system
of the new nation be based on Hindu ideals, and that
India itself be run as a Hindu state. They pointed to the
example of Pakistan, a country created explicitly to
protect and further the interests of a particular religious
community – the Muslims. However, the Indian Prime
Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was of the opinion that India
could not and must not become a “Hindu Pakistan”.
Besides Muslims, India also had large populations
of Sikhs and Christians, as well as many Parsis and
Jains. Under the new Constitution, they would have
the same rights as Hindus – the same opportunities
when it came to seeking jobs in government or the
private sector, the same rights before the law.
A third feature of the Constitution was that it offered
special privileges for the poorest and most disadvantaged
2022-23
Page 4


OUR PASTS – III 128
India After Independence
10
A New and Divided Nation
When India became independent in August 1947, it
faced a series of very great challenges. As a result of
Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country
from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be
found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem
of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled
by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be
persuaded to join the new nation. The problems of the
refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed
immediately. In the longer term, the new nation had to
adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes
and expectations of its population.
Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 –  Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being immersed in Allahabad, February 1948
Less than six months after independence the nation was in mourning. On 30 January 1948, Mahatma
Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction
that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony. That evening, a stunned nation heard Jawaharlal
Nehru’s moving statement over All India Radio: “Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives
and there is darkness everywhere …  our beloved leader …  the Father of the Nation is no more.”
2022-23
129
Activity
Imagine that you are a
British administrator
leaving India in 1947.
You are writing a letter
home where you discuss
what is likely to happen
to India without the
British. What would be
your views about the
future of India?
†
Franchise – The right to
vote
India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345
million. It was also divided. There were divisions
between high castes and low castes, between the
majority Hindu community and Indians who practised
other faiths. The citizens of this vast land spoke many
different languages, wore many different kinds of dress,
ate different kinds of food and practised different
professions. How could they be made to live together in
one nation-state?
To the problem of unity was added the problem of
development. At Independence, the vast majority of
Indians lived in the villages. Farmers and peasants
depended on the monsoon for their survival. So did the
non-farm sector of the rural economy, for if the crops
failed, barbers, carpenters, weavers and other service
groups would not get paid for their services either. In
the cities, factory workers lived in crowded slums with
little access to education or health care. Clearly, the
new nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by
increasing the productivity of agriculture and by
promoting new, job-creating industries.
Unity and development had to go hand in hand. If
the divisions between different sections of India were
not healed, they could result in violent and costly
conflicts – high castes fighting with low castes, Hindus
with Muslims and so on. At the same time, if the fruits
of economic development did not reach the broad masses
of the population, it could create fresh divisions – for
example, between the rich and the poor, between cities
and the countryside, between regions of India that were
prosperous and regions that lagged behind.
A Constitution is Written
Between December 1946 and November 1949, some
three hundred Indians had a series of meetings on
the country’s political future. The meetings of this
“Constituent Assembly” were held in New Delhi, but
the participants came from all over India, and from
different political parties. These discussions resulted
in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came
into effect on 26 January 1950.
One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of
universal adult franchise. All Indians above the age of
21 would be allowed to vote in state and national
elections. This was a revolutionary step – for never before
had Indians been allowed to choose their own leaders.
In other countries, such as the United Kingdom and
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
2022-23
OUR PASTS – III 130
Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 – Jawaharlal Nehru
introducing the resolution that
outlined the objectives of the
Constitution
the United States, this right had been granted in stages.
First only men of property had the vote. Then men who
were educated were also added on. Working-class men
got the vote only after a long struggle. Finally, after a
bitter struggle of their own, American and British women
were granted the vote. On the other hand, soon after
Independence, India chose to grant this right to all its
citizens regardless of gender, class or education.
A second feature of the Constitution was that it
guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens,
regardless of their caste or religious affiliation. There
were some Indians who wished that the political system
of the new nation be based on Hindu ideals, and that
India itself be run as a Hindu state. They pointed to the
example of Pakistan, a country created explicitly to
protect and further the interests of a particular religious
community – the Muslims. However, the Indian Prime
Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was of the opinion that India
could not and must not become a “Hindu Pakistan”.
Besides Muslims, India also had large populations
of Sikhs and Christians, as well as many Parsis and
Jains. Under the new Constitution, they would have
the same rights as Hindus – the same opportunities
when it came to seeking jobs in government or the
private sector, the same rights before the law.
A third feature of the Constitution was that it offered
special privileges for the poorest and most disadvantaged
2022-23
131
Nehru wrote in a letter to
the Chief Ministers of states:
... we have a Muslim
minority who are so large
in numbers that they
cannot, even if they want,
go anywhere else. That is a
basic fact about which
there can be no argument.
Whatever the provocation
from Pakistan and
whatever the indignities
and horrors inflicted on
non-Muslims there,  we
have got to deal with this
minority in a civilised
manner. We must give
them security and the
rights of citizens in a
democratic State.
Source 1
We must give them
security and rights
Activity
Imagine a conversation
between a father and son
in a Muslim family. After
Partition, the son thinks it
would be wiser for them to
move to Pakistan while the
father believes that they
should continue to live in
India. Taking information
from the chapter so far
(and Chapter 11), act out
what each would say.
†
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Indians. The practice of untouchability, described
as a “slur and a blot” on the “fair name of India”,
was abolished. Hindu temples, previously open to
only the higher castes, were thrown open to
all, including the former untouchables. After a
long debate, the Constituent Assembly also
recommended that a certain percentage of seats
in legislatures as well as jobs in government be
reserved for members of the lowest castes. It had
been argued by some that Untouchable or as they
were now known, Harijan, candidates did not have
good enough grades to get into the prestigious
Indian Administrative Service. But, as one member
of the Constituent Assembly, H.J. Khandekar,
argued, it was the upper castes who were
responsible for the Harijans “being unfit today”.
Addressing his more privileged colleagues,
Khandekar said:
We were suppressed for thousands of years.
You engaged us in your service to serve your
own ends and suppressed us to such an
extent that neither our minds nor our bodies
and nor even our hearts work, nor are we
able to march forward.
Along with the former Untouchables, the
adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were also granted
reservation in seats and jobs. Like the Scheduled
Castes, these Indians too had been deprived and
discriminated against. The tribals had been
deprived of modern health care and education,
while their lands and forests had been taken away
by more powerful outsiders. The new privileges
granted them by the Constitution were meant to
make amends for this.
The Constituent Assembly spent many days
discussing the powers of the central government
versus those of the state governments. Some
members thought that the Centre’s interests
should be foremost. Only a strong Centre, it was
argued, “would be in a position to think and plan
for the well-being of the country as a whole”. Other
members felt that the provinces should have
greater autonomy and freedom. A member from
Mysore feared that under the present system
“democracy is centred in Delhi and it is not allowed
to work in the same sense and spirit in the rest of
the country”. A member from Madras insisted that
2022-23
Page 5


OUR PASTS – III 128
India After Independence
10
A New and Divided Nation
When India became independent in August 1947, it
faced a series of very great challenges. As a result of
Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country
from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be
found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem
of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled
by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be
persuaded to join the new nation. The problems of the
refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed
immediately. In the longer term, the new nation had to
adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes
and expectations of its population.
Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 –  Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being immersed in Allahabad, February 1948
Less than six months after independence the nation was in mourning. On 30 January 1948, Mahatma
Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction
that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony. That evening, a stunned nation heard Jawaharlal
Nehru’s moving statement over All India Radio: “Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives
and there is darkness everywhere …  our beloved leader …  the Father of the Nation is no more.”
2022-23
129
Activity
Imagine that you are a
British administrator
leaving India in 1947.
You are writing a letter
home where you discuss
what is likely to happen
to India without the
British. What would be
your views about the
future of India?
†
Franchise – The right to
vote
India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345
million. It was also divided. There were divisions
between high castes and low castes, between the
majority Hindu community and Indians who practised
other faiths. The citizens of this vast land spoke many
different languages, wore many different kinds of dress,
ate different kinds of food and practised different
professions. How could they be made to live together in
one nation-state?
To the problem of unity was added the problem of
development. At Independence, the vast majority of
Indians lived in the villages. Farmers and peasants
depended on the monsoon for their survival. So did the
non-farm sector of the rural economy, for if the crops
failed, barbers, carpenters, weavers and other service
groups would not get paid for their services either. In
the cities, factory workers lived in crowded slums with
little access to education or health care. Clearly, the
new nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by
increasing the productivity of agriculture and by
promoting new, job-creating industries.
Unity and development had to go hand in hand. If
the divisions between different sections of India were
not healed, they could result in violent and costly
conflicts – high castes fighting with low castes, Hindus
with Muslims and so on. At the same time, if the fruits
of economic development did not reach the broad masses
of the population, it could create fresh divisions – for
example, between the rich and the poor, between cities
and the countryside, between regions of India that were
prosperous and regions that lagged behind.
A Constitution is Written
Between December 1946 and November 1949, some
three hundred Indians had a series of meetings on
the country’s political future. The meetings of this
“Constituent Assembly” were held in New Delhi, but
the participants came from all over India, and from
different political parties. These discussions resulted
in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came
into effect on 26 January 1950.
One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of
universal adult franchise. All Indians above the age of
21 would be allowed to vote in state and national
elections. This was a revolutionary step – for never before
had Indians been allowed to choose their own leaders.
In other countries, such as the United Kingdom and
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
2022-23
OUR PASTS – III 130
Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 2 – Jawaharlal Nehru
introducing the resolution that
outlined the objectives of the
Constitution
the United States, this right had been granted in stages.
First only men of property had the vote. Then men who
were educated were also added on. Working-class men
got the vote only after a long struggle. Finally, after a
bitter struggle of their own, American and British women
were granted the vote. On the other hand, soon after
Independence, India chose to grant this right to all its
citizens regardless of gender, class or education.
A second feature of the Constitution was that it
guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens,
regardless of their caste or religious affiliation. There
were some Indians who wished that the political system
of the new nation be based on Hindu ideals, and that
India itself be run as a Hindu state. They pointed to the
example of Pakistan, a country created explicitly to
protect and further the interests of a particular religious
community – the Muslims. However, the Indian Prime
Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was of the opinion that India
could not and must not become a “Hindu Pakistan”.
Besides Muslims, India also had large populations
of Sikhs and Christians, as well as many Parsis and
Jains. Under the new Constitution, they would have
the same rights as Hindus – the same opportunities
when it came to seeking jobs in government or the
private sector, the same rights before the law.
A third feature of the Constitution was that it offered
special privileges for the poorest and most disadvantaged
2022-23
131
Nehru wrote in a letter to
the Chief Ministers of states:
... we have a Muslim
minority who are so large
in numbers that they
cannot, even if they want,
go anywhere else. That is a
basic fact about which
there can be no argument.
Whatever the provocation
from Pakistan and
whatever the indignities
and horrors inflicted on
non-Muslims there,  we
have got to deal with this
minority in a civilised
manner. We must give
them security and the
rights of citizens in a
democratic State.
Source 1
We must give them
security and rights
Activity
Imagine a conversation
between a father and son
in a Muslim family. After
Partition, the son thinks it
would be wiser for them to
move to Pakistan while the
father believes that they
should continue to live in
India. Taking information
from the chapter so far
(and Chapter 11), act out
what each would say.
†
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Indians. The practice of untouchability, described
as a “slur and a blot” on the “fair name of India”,
was abolished. Hindu temples, previously open to
only the higher castes, were thrown open to
all, including the former untouchables. After a
long debate, the Constituent Assembly also
recommended that a certain percentage of seats
in legislatures as well as jobs in government be
reserved for members of the lowest castes. It had
been argued by some that Untouchable or as they
were now known, Harijan, candidates did not have
good enough grades to get into the prestigious
Indian Administrative Service. But, as one member
of the Constituent Assembly, H.J. Khandekar,
argued, it was the upper castes who were
responsible for the Harijans “being unfit today”.
Addressing his more privileged colleagues,
Khandekar said:
We were suppressed for thousands of years.
You engaged us in your service to serve your
own ends and suppressed us to such an
extent that neither our minds nor our bodies
and nor even our hearts work, nor are we
able to march forward.
Along with the former Untouchables, the
adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were also granted
reservation in seats and jobs. Like the Scheduled
Castes, these Indians too had been deprived and
discriminated against. The tribals had been
deprived of modern health care and education,
while their lands and forests had been taken away
by more powerful outsiders. The new privileges
granted them by the Constitution were meant to
make amends for this.
The Constituent Assembly spent many days
discussing the powers of the central government
versus those of the state governments. Some
members thought that the Centre’s interests
should be foremost. Only a strong Centre, it was
argued, “would be in a position to think and plan
for the well-being of the country as a whole”. Other
members felt that the provinces should have
greater autonomy and freedom. A member from
Mysore feared that under the present system
“democracy is centred in Delhi and it is not allowed
to work in the same sense and spirit in the rest of
the country”. A member from Madras insisted that
2022-23
OUR PASTS – III 132
Activity
Discuss in your class,
one advantage and one
disadvantage today of
the decision to keep
English as a language
of India.
†
“the initial responsibility for the
well-being of the people of the
provinces should rest with the
Provincial Governments”.
The Constitution sought to
balance these competing claims by
providing three lists of subjects: a
Union List, with subjects such as
taxes, defence and foreign affairs,
which would be the exclusive
responsibility of the Centre; a
State List of subjects, such as
education and health, which
would be taken care of principally
by the states; a Concurrent List,
under which  would come subjects
such as forests and agriculture,
in which the Centre and the states
would have joint responsibility.
Another major debate in the
Constituent Assembly concerned language. Many
members believed that the English language should
leave India with the British rulers. Its place, they
argued, should be taken by Hindi. However, those who
did not speak Hindi were of a different opinion. Speaking
in the Assembly, T.T. Krishnamachari conveyed “a
warning on behalf of people of the South”, some of whom
threatened to separate from India if Hindi was imposed
on them. A compromise was finally arrived at: namely,
that while Hindi would be the “official language” of India,
English would be used in the courts, the services, and
communications between one state and another.
Many Indians contributed to the framing of the
Constitution. But perhaps the most important role was
played by Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who was Chairman of
the Drafting Committee, and under whose supervision
the document was finalised. In his final speech to the
Constituent Assembly, Dr Ambedkar pointed out that
political democracy had to be accompanied by economic
and social democracy. Giving the right to vote would
not automatically lead to the removal of other
inequalities such as between rich and poor, or between
upper and lower castes. With the new Constitution, he
said, India was
going to enter into a life of contradictions. In
politics we will have equality and in social and
economic life we will have inequality. In politics
Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Fig. 3 – Dr B.R. Ambedkar
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956),
respectfully referred to as
Babasaheb, belonged to a
Marathi-speaking dalit family.
A lawyer and economist, he is
best known as a revered leader
of the Dalits and the father of
the Indian Constitution
2022-23