NCERT Textbook: Genome Technology and Engineering | Biotechnology for Class 12 - NEET PDF Download

 Page 1


UNIT II
Genome Engineering
Chapter 5: Genome Technology and Engineering
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   111 23-01-2025   11:23:03
Reprint 2025-26
Page 2


UNIT II
Genome Engineering
Chapter 5: Genome Technology and Engineering
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   111 23-01-2025   11:23:03
Reprint 2025-26
Stanley Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. 
After graduating from Rutgers College in 1956, Cohen 
went to the University of Pennsylvania School of 
Medicine. He finished his medical degree in 1960. He 
accepted a position at Stanford University’s Medical 
School in 1968 and began experimenting with plasmids. 
Cohen is a Professor of Genetics at Stanford University. 
He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, 
and in 1980, won the Albert Lasker Basic Medical 
Research Award. He was awarded the National Medal 
of Science in 1988. Stanley Cohen is well-known for his 
innovation with Herbert Boyer of recombinant DNA 
technology, which they published in 1973. Stanley 
Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first two scientists to 
transplant genes from one living organism to another, a 
fundamental discovery for genetic engineering.
Stanley Norman Cohen
17 February 1935—present
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   112 23-01-2025   11:23:04
Reprint 2025-26
Page 3


UNIT II
Genome Engineering
Chapter 5: Genome Technology and Engineering
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   111 23-01-2025   11:23:03
Reprint 2025-26
Stanley Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. 
After graduating from Rutgers College in 1956, Cohen 
went to the University of Pennsylvania School of 
Medicine. He finished his medical degree in 1960. He 
accepted a position at Stanford University’s Medical 
School in 1968 and began experimenting with plasmids. 
Cohen is a Professor of Genetics at Stanford University. 
He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, 
and in 1980, won the Albert Lasker Basic Medical 
Research Award. He was awarded the National Medal 
of Science in 1988. Stanley Cohen is well-known for his 
innovation with Herbert Boyer of recombinant DNA 
technology, which they published in 1973. Stanley 
Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first two scientists to 
transplant genes from one living organism to another, a 
fundamental discovery for genetic engineering.
Stanley Norman Cohen
17 February 1935—present
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   112 23-01-2025   11:23:04
Reprint 2025-26
Physical mapping of the 
genome (physical and 
genetic mapping)
High-throughput DNA 
sequencing 
Other genome-related 
technology
Structural, functional and 
comparative genomics
Protein engineering 
Gradual developments in the area of biotechnology and 
molecular biology, especially in genome mapping and its 
implication, has led to the opening of new frontiers for  
research as well as its applications in many ??elds. 
Advancement in genome research has opened up scope 
for understanding of transcriptome and proteome of 
any organism on one hand, and application of genomics 
and related engineering in prediction and treatment of 
diseases on the other. Applications in crop improvement, 
gene therapy and remediation of environmental hazards 
are yet another frontier in which genome technology has 
tremendous potential and scope. In this chapter, concepts 
related to genome, its sequencing, analysis and its impact 
on understanding the biology of organisms have been 
detailed. In Chapter 7 of Class XI, students have already 
studied as to how genetic information is encoded in DNA 
and the processes, like transcription and translation.
5.1 Mapping of g eno Me : g enetic and 
p hysical Genome of an organism is the complete genetic information 
present in the cell of an organism. For prokaryotes, it includes 
5.1 Mapping of the 
Genome: Genetic 
and Physical
5.2 High-throughput 
DNA sequencing 
5.3 Other genome-
related technology
5.4 Genome 
Engineering
5.5 Structural, 
functional and 
comparative 
genomics
5.6 Protein  
engineering 
Genome Technology and 
Engineering
5
Chapter 
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   113 23-01-2025   11:23:04
Reprint 2025-26
Page 4


UNIT II
Genome Engineering
Chapter 5: Genome Technology and Engineering
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   111 23-01-2025   11:23:03
Reprint 2025-26
Stanley Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. 
After graduating from Rutgers College in 1956, Cohen 
went to the University of Pennsylvania School of 
Medicine. He finished his medical degree in 1960. He 
accepted a position at Stanford University’s Medical 
School in 1968 and began experimenting with plasmids. 
Cohen is a Professor of Genetics at Stanford University. 
He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, 
and in 1980, won the Albert Lasker Basic Medical 
Research Award. He was awarded the National Medal 
of Science in 1988. Stanley Cohen is well-known for his 
innovation with Herbert Boyer of recombinant DNA 
technology, which they published in 1973. Stanley 
Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first two scientists to 
transplant genes from one living organism to another, a 
fundamental discovery for genetic engineering.
Stanley Norman Cohen
17 February 1935—present
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   112 23-01-2025   11:23:04
Reprint 2025-26
Physical mapping of the 
genome (physical and 
genetic mapping)
High-throughput DNA 
sequencing 
Other genome-related 
technology
Structural, functional and 
comparative genomics
Protein engineering 
Gradual developments in the area of biotechnology and 
molecular biology, especially in genome mapping and its 
implication, has led to the opening of new frontiers for  
research as well as its applications in many ??elds. 
Advancement in genome research has opened up scope 
for understanding of transcriptome and proteome of 
any organism on one hand, and application of genomics 
and related engineering in prediction and treatment of 
diseases on the other. Applications in crop improvement, 
gene therapy and remediation of environmental hazards 
are yet another frontier in which genome technology has 
tremendous potential and scope. In this chapter, concepts 
related to genome, its sequencing, analysis and its impact 
on understanding the biology of organisms have been 
detailed. In Chapter 7 of Class XI, students have already 
studied as to how genetic information is encoded in DNA 
and the processes, like transcription and translation.
5.1 Mapping of g eno Me : g enetic and 
p hysical Genome of an organism is the complete genetic information 
present in the cell of an organism. For prokaryotes, it includes 
5.1 Mapping of the 
Genome: Genetic 
and Physical
5.2 High-throughput 
DNA sequencing 
5.3 Other genome-
related technology
5.4 Genome 
Engineering
5.5 Structural, 
functional and 
comparative 
genomics
5.6 Protein  
engineering 
Genome Technology and 
Engineering
5
Chapter 
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   113 23-01-2025   11:23:04
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 114
the DNA present in the nucleoid region and plasmid (as it 
is present in bacteria); and for eukaryotes, it includes the 
DNA present in the chromosome of the nucleus as well as in 
organelles, like mitochondria and the plastids, e.g. Protists 
and all multicellular organisms (Fig. 5.1).
(a) Prokaryotes 
Nucleoid
(DNA)
Plasmid
(i) Animal Cell
(b) Eukaryotes
(ii) Plant Cell
DNA
thread
Chromosome
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Nucleus
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi body
Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope
Plasma membrane
Centriole
Lysosome
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Golgi
body
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Fig. 5.1: Genome represents DNA content present in Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes. (a) For prokaryotes, 
it includes the DNA present in the nucleoid and plasmid (b) For eukaryotes, it includes the 
DNA present in the chromosomes of the nucleus as well as in organelles, like mitochondria and 
chloroplast
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   114 23-01-2025   11:23:07
Reprint 2025-26
Page 5


UNIT II
Genome Engineering
Chapter 5: Genome Technology and Engineering
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   111 23-01-2025   11:23:03
Reprint 2025-26
Stanley Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. 
After graduating from Rutgers College in 1956, Cohen 
went to the University of Pennsylvania School of 
Medicine. He finished his medical degree in 1960. He 
accepted a position at Stanford University’s Medical 
School in 1968 and began experimenting with plasmids. 
Cohen is a Professor of Genetics at Stanford University. 
He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, 
and in 1980, won the Albert Lasker Basic Medical 
Research Award. He was awarded the National Medal 
of Science in 1988. Stanley Cohen is well-known for his 
innovation with Herbert Boyer of recombinant DNA 
technology, which they published in 1973. Stanley 
Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first two scientists to 
transplant genes from one living organism to another, a 
fundamental discovery for genetic engineering.
Stanley Norman Cohen
17 February 1935—present
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   112 23-01-2025   11:23:04
Reprint 2025-26
Physical mapping of the 
genome (physical and 
genetic mapping)
High-throughput DNA 
sequencing 
Other genome-related 
technology
Structural, functional and 
comparative genomics
Protein engineering 
Gradual developments in the area of biotechnology and 
molecular biology, especially in genome mapping and its 
implication, has led to the opening of new frontiers for  
research as well as its applications in many ??elds. 
Advancement in genome research has opened up scope 
for understanding of transcriptome and proteome of 
any organism on one hand, and application of genomics 
and related engineering in prediction and treatment of 
diseases on the other. Applications in crop improvement, 
gene therapy and remediation of environmental hazards 
are yet another frontier in which genome technology has 
tremendous potential and scope. In this chapter, concepts 
related to genome, its sequencing, analysis and its impact 
on understanding the biology of organisms have been 
detailed. In Chapter 7 of Class XI, students have already 
studied as to how genetic information is encoded in DNA 
and the processes, like transcription and translation.
5.1 Mapping of g eno Me : g enetic and 
p hysical Genome of an organism is the complete genetic information 
present in the cell of an organism. For prokaryotes, it includes 
5.1 Mapping of the 
Genome: Genetic 
and Physical
5.2 High-throughput 
DNA sequencing 
5.3 Other genome-
related technology
5.4 Genome 
Engineering
5.5 Structural, 
functional and 
comparative 
genomics
5.6 Protein  
engineering 
Genome Technology and 
Engineering
5
Chapter 
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   113 23-01-2025   11:23:04
Reprint 2025-26
Biotechnology XII 114
the DNA present in the nucleoid region and plasmid (as it 
is present in bacteria); and for eukaryotes, it includes the 
DNA present in the chromosome of the nucleus as well as in 
organelles, like mitochondria and the plastids, e.g. Protists 
and all multicellular organisms (Fig. 5.1).
(a) Prokaryotes 
Nucleoid
(DNA)
Plasmid
(i) Animal Cell
(b) Eukaryotes
(ii) Plant Cell
DNA
thread
Chromosome
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Nucleus
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi body
Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope
Plasma membrane
Centriole
Lysosome
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Golgi
body
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Fig. 5.1: Genome represents DNA content present in Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes. (a) For prokaryotes, 
it includes the DNA present in the nucleoid and plasmid (b) For eukaryotes, it includes the 
DNA present in the chromosomes of the nucleus as well as in organelles, like mitochondria and 
chloroplast
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   114 23-01-2025   11:23:07
Reprint 2025-26
Genome Technology and Engineering
115
One of the important tasks for many biologists is to 
compare genomes or DNA of two organisms for various 
purposes including the understanding of conserved 
genes or DNA sequences and relationships, etc. In simple 
words, from multiple samples of a biological organism, 
a scientist wants to know whether DNA samples from 
two or more sources are similar or different. If DNA from 
two sources are different, then how are these different 
from each other. Further, if an interesting phenotype 
is noticed, the scientist might also be interested to 
know the genetic basis (genes and mutations in it) of a 
particular phenotype. Therefore, a set 
of techniques is required to answer 
such questions. Ideally, if we know 
the complete DNA sequence of each 
sample, we can compare them and 
answer all such questions. 
In genome research, it is extremely 
important and crucial to create a map 
of the genome of an organism from 
the point of view of identi??cation and 
relative position of genes or loci. 
Maps of genome can be created by two 
different approaches, i.e., the genetic 
approach and the physical approach, 
giving rise to genetic and physical 
mapping techniques for genome 
mapping in biological organisms 
(Fig. 5.2). 
5.1.1 Genetic Mapping
Genetic mapping experiments give us an estimate of  
distances between two or more genetic loci responsible for 
a set of well-known phenotypes. A genetic map, as shown in 
Fig. 5.2, is created by carrying out crossover analysis. You 
have already studied about the phenomenon of crossing 
over in Class XI (refer section 6.2, Chapter 6). Rate of 
crossing over (also referred to as recombination frequency) 
between two or more genes or loci has been successfully 
used to measure relative genetic distance between 
them. One map unit is equal to one per cent of observed 
(b)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
(b)
f
g
h
a
b
c
d
e
c
d
e 
 
f  g   h a 
b 
 
 
(a)
Fig. 5.2: Genome map (a) Map of a prokaryotic/
organelle genome. (b) Map of a eukaryotic 
genome, where a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h are genetic 
loci or physical sites like SSLP, STS  arranged 
based on genetic distances
Chapter 5_Genome Technology.indd   115 23-01-2025   11:23:08
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