NCERT Textbook: Human Settlements | Geography Class 12 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

 Page 1


Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II
Chapter 2
HUMAN
SETTLEMENTS
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings
of any type or size where human beings live.
For this purpose, people may erect houses and
other structures and command some area or
territory as their economic support-base. Thus,
the process of settlement inherently involves
grouping of people and apportioning of territory
as their resource base.
Settlements vary in size and type. They
range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With
size, the economic character and social structure
of settlements changes and so do its ecology and
technology. Settlements could be small and
sparsely spaced; they may also be large and
closely spaced. The sparsely located small
settlements are called villages, specialising in
agriculture or other primary activities. On the
other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements
which are termed as urban settlements
specialising in secondary and tertiary activities.
The basic differences between rural and urban
settlements are as follows :
• The rural settlements derive their life
support or basic economic needs from
land based primary economic activities,
whereas, urban settlements, depend on
processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of finished goods on the
one hand and a variety of services on the
other.
• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,
provide goods and services not only to
urban dwellers but also to the people of
the rural settlements in their hinterlands
in return for food and raw materials. This
functional relationship between the urban
and rural settlements takes place through
transport and communication network.
• Rural and urban settlements differ in
terms of social relationship, attitude and
outlook. Rural people are less mobile and
therefore, social relations among them are
intimate. In urban areas, on the other
hand, way of life is complex and fast, and
social relations are formal.
T T T T Types of ypes of ypes of ypes of ypes of R R R R Rur ur ur ur ural Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement
Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter-house
2024-25
Page 2


Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II
Chapter 2
HUMAN
SETTLEMENTS
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings
of any type or size where human beings live.
For this purpose, people may erect houses and
other structures and command some area or
territory as their economic support-base. Thus,
the process of settlement inherently involves
grouping of people and apportioning of territory
as their resource base.
Settlements vary in size and type. They
range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With
size, the economic character and social structure
of settlements changes and so do its ecology and
technology. Settlements could be small and
sparsely spaced; they may also be large and
closely spaced. The sparsely located small
settlements are called villages, specialising in
agriculture or other primary activities. On the
other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements
which are termed as urban settlements
specialising in secondary and tertiary activities.
The basic differences between rural and urban
settlements are as follows :
• The rural settlements derive their life
support or basic economic needs from
land based primary economic activities,
whereas, urban settlements, depend on
processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of finished goods on the
one hand and a variety of services on the
other.
• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,
provide goods and services not only to
urban dwellers but also to the people of
the rural settlements in their hinterlands
in return for food and raw materials. This
functional relationship between the urban
and rural settlements takes place through
transport and communication network.
• Rural and urban settlements differ in
terms of social relationship, attitude and
outlook. Rural people are less mobile and
therefore, social relations among them are
intimate. In urban areas, on the other
hand, way of life is complex and fast, and
social relations are formal.
T T T T Types of ypes of ypes of ypes of ypes of R R R R Rur ur ur ur ural Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement
Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter-house
2024-25
16 India : People and Economy
Semi-Clustered Settlements
Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may
result from tendency of clustering in a
restricted area of dispersed settlement. More
often such a pattern may also result from
segregation or fragmentation of a large compact
village. In this case, one or more sections of
the village society choose or is forced to live a
little away from the main cluster or village. In
such cases, generally, the land-owning and
dominant community occupies the central part
of the main village, whereas people of lower
strata of society and menial workers settle on
the outer flanks of the village. Such settlements
are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some
parts of Rajasthan.
distance. In India compact or clustered village
of a few hundred houses is a rather universal
feature, particularly in the northern plains.
However, there are several areas, which have
other forms of rural settlements. There are
various factors and conditions responsible for
having different types of rural settlements in
India. These include: (i) physical features –
nature of terrain, altitude, climate and
availability of water (ii) cultural and ethenic
factors – social structure, caste and religion
(iii) security factors – defence against thefts and
robberies. Rural settlements in India can
broadly be put into four types:
• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,
• Semi-clustered or fragmented,
• Hamleted, and
• Dispersed or isolated.
Clustered Settlements
The clustered rural settlement is a compact or
closely built up area of houses. In this type of
village the general living area is distinct and
separated from the surrounding farms, barns
and pastures. The closely built-up area and its
intervening streets present some recognisable
pattern or geometric shape, such as
rectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlements
are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and
in the northeastern states. Sometimes, people
live in compact village for security or defence
reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of
central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,
scarcity of water has necessitated compact
settlement for maximum utilisation of available
water resources.
Hamleted Settlements
Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several
units physically separated from each other
bearing a common name. These units are locally
called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in
various parts of the country. This segmentation
of a large village is often motivated by social
and ethnic factors. Such villages are more
frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga
plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the
Himalayas.
Dispersed Settlements
Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India
appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets
of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills
Fig. 2.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern states
Fig. 2.2 : Semi-clustered settlements
2024-25
Page 3


Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II
Chapter 2
HUMAN
SETTLEMENTS
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings
of any type or size where human beings live.
For this purpose, people may erect houses and
other structures and command some area or
territory as their economic support-base. Thus,
the process of settlement inherently involves
grouping of people and apportioning of territory
as their resource base.
Settlements vary in size and type. They
range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With
size, the economic character and social structure
of settlements changes and so do its ecology and
technology. Settlements could be small and
sparsely spaced; they may also be large and
closely spaced. The sparsely located small
settlements are called villages, specialising in
agriculture or other primary activities. On the
other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements
which are termed as urban settlements
specialising in secondary and tertiary activities.
The basic differences between rural and urban
settlements are as follows :
• The rural settlements derive their life
support or basic economic needs from
land based primary economic activities,
whereas, urban settlements, depend on
processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of finished goods on the
one hand and a variety of services on the
other.
• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,
provide goods and services not only to
urban dwellers but also to the people of
the rural settlements in their hinterlands
in return for food and raw materials. This
functional relationship between the urban
and rural settlements takes place through
transport and communication network.
• Rural and urban settlements differ in
terms of social relationship, attitude and
outlook. Rural people are less mobile and
therefore, social relations among them are
intimate. In urban areas, on the other
hand, way of life is complex and fast, and
social relations are formal.
T T T T Types of ypes of ypes of ypes of ypes of R R R R Rur ur ur ur ural Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement
Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter-house
2024-25
16 India : People and Economy
Semi-Clustered Settlements
Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may
result from tendency of clustering in a
restricted area of dispersed settlement. More
often such a pattern may also result from
segregation or fragmentation of a large compact
village. In this case, one or more sections of
the village society choose or is forced to live a
little away from the main cluster or village. In
such cases, generally, the land-owning and
dominant community occupies the central part
of the main village, whereas people of lower
strata of society and menial workers settle on
the outer flanks of the village. Such settlements
are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some
parts of Rajasthan.
distance. In India compact or clustered village
of a few hundred houses is a rather universal
feature, particularly in the northern plains.
However, there are several areas, which have
other forms of rural settlements. There are
various factors and conditions responsible for
having different types of rural settlements in
India. These include: (i) physical features –
nature of terrain, altitude, climate and
availability of water (ii) cultural and ethenic
factors – social structure, caste and religion
(iii) security factors – defence against thefts and
robberies. Rural settlements in India can
broadly be put into four types:
• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,
• Semi-clustered or fragmented,
• Hamleted, and
• Dispersed or isolated.
Clustered Settlements
The clustered rural settlement is a compact or
closely built up area of houses. In this type of
village the general living area is distinct and
separated from the surrounding farms, barns
and pastures. The closely built-up area and its
intervening streets present some recognisable
pattern or geometric shape, such as
rectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlements
are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and
in the northeastern states. Sometimes, people
live in compact village for security or defence
reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of
central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,
scarcity of water has necessitated compact
settlement for maximum utilisation of available
water resources.
Hamleted Settlements
Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several
units physically separated from each other
bearing a common name. These units are locally
called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in
various parts of the country. This segmentation
of a large village is often motivated by social
and ethnic factors. Such villages are more
frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga
plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the
Himalayas.
Dispersed Settlements
Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India
appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets
of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills
Fig. 2.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern states
Fig. 2.2 : Semi-clustered settlements
2024-25
Human Settlements     17
evolution in different periods, Indian towns may
be classified as:
• Ancient towns, • Medieval towns, and
• Modern towns.
Ancient Towns
There are number of towns in India having
historical background spanning over 2000
years. Most of them developed as religious and
cultural centres. Varanasi is one of the important
towns among these. Prayag (Allahabad),
Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other
examples of ancient towns in the country.
Medieval Towns
About 100 of the existing towns have their roots
in the medieval period. Most of them developed
as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.
These are fort towns which came up on the
ruins of ancient towns. Important among them
are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra
and Nagpur.
Modern Towns
The British and other Europeans have
developed a number of towns in India.
Starting their foothold on coastal locations,
they first developed some trading ports such
as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. The
British later consolidated their hold around
three principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay),
Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) –
and built them in the British style. Rapidly
with farms or pasture on the slopes. Extreme
dispersion of settlement is often caused by
extremely fragmented nature of the terrain and
land resource base of habitable areas. Many
areas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.
Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements
Unlike rural settlements, urban settlements are
generally compact and larger in size. They are
engaged in a variety of non-agricultural,
economic and administrative functions. As
mentioned earlier, cities are functionally linked
to rural areas around them. Thus, exchange of
goods and services is performed sometimes
directly and sometimes through a series of
market towns and cities. Thus, cities are
connected directly as well as indirectly with the
villages and also with each other.
extending their domination either directly or
through control over the princely states, they
established their administrative centres, hill-
towns as summer resorts, and added new civil,
The census of India, 1991 defines urban
settlements as “All places which have
municipality, corporation, cantonment board or
notified town area committee and have a minimum
population of 5000 persons, at least 75 per cent
of male workers are engaged in non-agriculture
pursuits and a density of population of at least
400 persons per square kilometer are urban.
Fig. 2.4 : A view of the modern city
Fig. 2.3 : Dispersed settlements in Nagaland
Ev Ev Ev Ev Evolution of olution of olution of olution of olution of T T T T Towns in India owns in India owns in India owns in India owns in India
Towns flourished since prehistoric times in
India. Even at the time of Indus valley
civilisation, towns like Harappa and
Mohanjodaro were in existence. The following
period has witnessed evolution of towns. It
continued with periodic ups and downs until
the arrival of Europeans in India in the
eighteenth century. On the basis of their
2024-25
Page 4


Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II
Chapter 2
HUMAN
SETTLEMENTS
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings
of any type or size where human beings live.
For this purpose, people may erect houses and
other structures and command some area or
territory as their economic support-base. Thus,
the process of settlement inherently involves
grouping of people and apportioning of territory
as their resource base.
Settlements vary in size and type. They
range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With
size, the economic character and social structure
of settlements changes and so do its ecology and
technology. Settlements could be small and
sparsely spaced; they may also be large and
closely spaced. The sparsely located small
settlements are called villages, specialising in
agriculture or other primary activities. On the
other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements
which are termed as urban settlements
specialising in secondary and tertiary activities.
The basic differences between rural and urban
settlements are as follows :
• The rural settlements derive their life
support or basic economic needs from
land based primary economic activities,
whereas, urban settlements, depend on
processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of finished goods on the
one hand and a variety of services on the
other.
• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,
provide goods and services not only to
urban dwellers but also to the people of
the rural settlements in their hinterlands
in return for food and raw materials. This
functional relationship between the urban
and rural settlements takes place through
transport and communication network.
• Rural and urban settlements differ in
terms of social relationship, attitude and
outlook. Rural people are less mobile and
therefore, social relations among them are
intimate. In urban areas, on the other
hand, way of life is complex and fast, and
social relations are formal.
T T T T Types of ypes of ypes of ypes of ypes of R R R R Rur ur ur ur ural Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement
Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter-house
2024-25
16 India : People and Economy
Semi-Clustered Settlements
Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may
result from tendency of clustering in a
restricted area of dispersed settlement. More
often such a pattern may also result from
segregation or fragmentation of a large compact
village. In this case, one or more sections of
the village society choose or is forced to live a
little away from the main cluster or village. In
such cases, generally, the land-owning and
dominant community occupies the central part
of the main village, whereas people of lower
strata of society and menial workers settle on
the outer flanks of the village. Such settlements
are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some
parts of Rajasthan.
distance. In India compact or clustered village
of a few hundred houses is a rather universal
feature, particularly in the northern plains.
However, there are several areas, which have
other forms of rural settlements. There are
various factors and conditions responsible for
having different types of rural settlements in
India. These include: (i) physical features –
nature of terrain, altitude, climate and
availability of water (ii) cultural and ethenic
factors – social structure, caste and religion
(iii) security factors – defence against thefts and
robberies. Rural settlements in India can
broadly be put into four types:
• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,
• Semi-clustered or fragmented,
• Hamleted, and
• Dispersed or isolated.
Clustered Settlements
The clustered rural settlement is a compact or
closely built up area of houses. In this type of
village the general living area is distinct and
separated from the surrounding farms, barns
and pastures. The closely built-up area and its
intervening streets present some recognisable
pattern or geometric shape, such as
rectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlements
are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and
in the northeastern states. Sometimes, people
live in compact village for security or defence
reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of
central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,
scarcity of water has necessitated compact
settlement for maximum utilisation of available
water resources.
Hamleted Settlements
Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several
units physically separated from each other
bearing a common name. These units are locally
called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in
various parts of the country. This segmentation
of a large village is often motivated by social
and ethnic factors. Such villages are more
frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga
plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the
Himalayas.
Dispersed Settlements
Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India
appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets
of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills
Fig. 2.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern states
Fig. 2.2 : Semi-clustered settlements
2024-25
Human Settlements     17
evolution in different periods, Indian towns may
be classified as:
• Ancient towns, • Medieval towns, and
• Modern towns.
Ancient Towns
There are number of towns in India having
historical background spanning over 2000
years. Most of them developed as religious and
cultural centres. Varanasi is one of the important
towns among these. Prayag (Allahabad),
Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other
examples of ancient towns in the country.
Medieval Towns
About 100 of the existing towns have their roots
in the medieval period. Most of them developed
as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.
These are fort towns which came up on the
ruins of ancient towns. Important among them
are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra
and Nagpur.
Modern Towns
The British and other Europeans have
developed a number of towns in India.
Starting their foothold on coastal locations,
they first developed some trading ports such
as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. The
British later consolidated their hold around
three principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay),
Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) –
and built them in the British style. Rapidly
with farms or pasture on the slopes. Extreme
dispersion of settlement is often caused by
extremely fragmented nature of the terrain and
land resource base of habitable areas. Many
areas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.
Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements
Unlike rural settlements, urban settlements are
generally compact and larger in size. They are
engaged in a variety of non-agricultural,
economic and administrative functions. As
mentioned earlier, cities are functionally linked
to rural areas around them. Thus, exchange of
goods and services is performed sometimes
directly and sometimes through a series of
market towns and cities. Thus, cities are
connected directly as well as indirectly with the
villages and also with each other.
extending their domination either directly or
through control over the princely states, they
established their administrative centres, hill-
towns as summer resorts, and added new civil,
The census of India, 1991 defines urban
settlements as “All places which have
municipality, corporation, cantonment board or
notified town area committee and have a minimum
population of 5000 persons, at least 75 per cent
of male workers are engaged in non-agriculture
pursuits and a density of population of at least
400 persons per square kilometer are urban.
Fig. 2.4 : A view of the modern city
Fig. 2.3 : Dispersed settlements in Nagaland
Ev Ev Ev Ev Evolution of olution of olution of olution of olution of T T T T Towns in India owns in India owns in India owns in India owns in India
Towns flourished since prehistoric times in
India. Even at the time of Indus valley
civilisation, towns like Harappa and
Mohanjodaro were in existence. The following
period has witnessed evolution of towns. It
continued with periodic ups and downs until
the arrival of Europeans in India in the
eighteenth century. On the basis of their
2024-25
18 India : People and Economy
Year Number of Urban Population % of Total Decennial
Towns/UAs (in Thousands) Population Growth (%)
1901 1,827 25,851.9 10.84 —-
1911 1,815 25,941.6 10.29 0.35
1921 1,949 28,086.2 11.18 8.27
1931 2,072 33,456.0 11.99 19.12
1941 2,250 44,153.3 13.86 31.97
1951 2,843 62,443.7 17.29 41.42
1961 2,365 78,936.6 17.97 26.41
1971 2,590 1,09,114 19.91 38.23
1981 3,378 1,59,463 23.34 46.14
1991 4,689 2,17,611 25.71 36.47
2001 5,161 2,85,355 27.78 31.13
2011* 6,171 3,77,000 31.16 31.08
Table 2.1 : India – Trends of Urbanisation 1901-2011
administrative and military areas to them.
Towns based on modern industries also
evolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be cited
as an example.
After independence, a large number of towns
have been developed as administrative
headquarters, e.g., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar,
Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc., and industrial
centres, such as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri,
Barauni. Some old towns also developed as
satellite towns around metropolitan cities, such
as Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurugram around
Delhi. With increasing investment in rural areas,
a large number of medium and small towns
have developed all over the country.
Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India
The level of urbanisation is measured in
terms of percentage of urban population to
total population. The level of urbanisation in
India in 2011 was 31.16 per cent, which is
quite low in comparison to developed
countries. Total urban population has
increased eleven-fold during the twentieth
century. Enlargement of urban centres and
emergence of new towns have played a
significant role in the growth of urban
population and urbanisation in the country.
(Table 2.1). But the growth rate of
urbanisation has slowed down during last
two decades.
*Source: Census of India, 2011 http.//www.censusindia.gov.in (Provisional)
Functional Classification of Towns
Apart from their role as central or nodal places,
many towns and cities perform specialised
services. Some towns and cities specialise in
certain functions and they are known for
some specific activities, products or services.
However, each town performs a number of
functions. On the basis of dominant or
specialised functions, Indian cities and towns
can be broadly classified as follows:
Administrative towns and cities
Towns supporting administrative headquarters
of higher order are administrative towns, such
as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong,
Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar,
Jaipur, Chennai, etc.
Industrial towns
Industries constitute prime motive force of these
cities, such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,
Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.
Transport Cities
They may be ports primarily engaged in export
and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi,
Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc., or hubs of
inland transport, such as Agra, Dhulia,
Mughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
2024-25
Page 5


Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II Unit II
Chapter 2
HUMAN
SETTLEMENTS
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings
of any type or size where human beings live.
For this purpose, people may erect houses and
other structures and command some area or
territory as their economic support-base. Thus,
the process of settlement inherently involves
grouping of people and apportioning of territory
as their resource base.
Settlements vary in size and type. They
range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With
size, the economic character and social structure
of settlements changes and so do its ecology and
technology. Settlements could be small and
sparsely spaced; they may also be large and
closely spaced. The sparsely located small
settlements are called villages, specialising in
agriculture or other primary activities. On the
other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements
which are termed as urban settlements
specialising in secondary and tertiary activities.
The basic differences between rural and urban
settlements are as follows :
• The rural settlements derive their life
support or basic economic needs from
land based primary economic activities,
whereas, urban settlements, depend on
processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of finished goods on the
one hand and a variety of services on the
other.
• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,
provide goods and services not only to
urban dwellers but also to the people of
the rural settlements in their hinterlands
in return for food and raw materials. This
functional relationship between the urban
and rural settlements takes place through
transport and communication network.
• Rural and urban settlements differ in
terms of social relationship, attitude and
outlook. Rural people are less mobile and
therefore, social relations among them are
intimate. In urban areas, on the other
hand, way of life is complex and fast, and
social relations are formal.
T T T T Types of ypes of ypes of ypes of ypes of R R R R Rur ur ur ur ural Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement al Settlement
Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter-house
2024-25
16 India : People and Economy
Semi-Clustered Settlements
Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may
result from tendency of clustering in a
restricted area of dispersed settlement. More
often such a pattern may also result from
segregation or fragmentation of a large compact
village. In this case, one or more sections of
the village society choose or is forced to live a
little away from the main cluster or village. In
such cases, generally, the land-owning and
dominant community occupies the central part
of the main village, whereas people of lower
strata of society and menial workers settle on
the outer flanks of the village. Such settlements
are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some
parts of Rajasthan.
distance. In India compact or clustered village
of a few hundred houses is a rather universal
feature, particularly in the northern plains.
However, there are several areas, which have
other forms of rural settlements. There are
various factors and conditions responsible for
having different types of rural settlements in
India. These include: (i) physical features –
nature of terrain, altitude, climate and
availability of water (ii) cultural and ethenic
factors – social structure, caste and religion
(iii) security factors – defence against thefts and
robberies. Rural settlements in India can
broadly be put into four types:
• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,
• Semi-clustered or fragmented,
• Hamleted, and
• Dispersed or isolated.
Clustered Settlements
The clustered rural settlement is a compact or
closely built up area of houses. In this type of
village the general living area is distinct and
separated from the surrounding farms, barns
and pastures. The closely built-up area and its
intervening streets present some recognisable
pattern or geometric shape, such as
rectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlements
are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and
in the northeastern states. Sometimes, people
live in compact village for security or defence
reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of
central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,
scarcity of water has necessitated compact
settlement for maximum utilisation of available
water resources.
Hamleted Settlements
Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several
units physically separated from each other
bearing a common name. These units are locally
called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in
various parts of the country. This segmentation
of a large village is often motivated by social
and ethnic factors. Such villages are more
frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga
plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the
Himalayas.
Dispersed Settlements
Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India
appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets
of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills
Fig. 2.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern states
Fig. 2.2 : Semi-clustered settlements
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Human Settlements     17
evolution in different periods, Indian towns may
be classified as:
• Ancient towns, • Medieval towns, and
• Modern towns.
Ancient Towns
There are number of towns in India having
historical background spanning over 2000
years. Most of them developed as religious and
cultural centres. Varanasi is one of the important
towns among these. Prayag (Allahabad),
Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other
examples of ancient towns in the country.
Medieval Towns
About 100 of the existing towns have their roots
in the medieval period. Most of them developed
as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.
These are fort towns which came up on the
ruins of ancient towns. Important among them
are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra
and Nagpur.
Modern Towns
The British and other Europeans have
developed a number of towns in India.
Starting their foothold on coastal locations,
they first developed some trading ports such
as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. The
British later consolidated their hold around
three principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay),
Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) –
and built them in the British style. Rapidly
with farms or pasture on the slopes. Extreme
dispersion of settlement is often caused by
extremely fragmented nature of the terrain and
land resource base of habitable areas. Many
areas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.
Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements Urban Settlements
Unlike rural settlements, urban settlements are
generally compact and larger in size. They are
engaged in a variety of non-agricultural,
economic and administrative functions. As
mentioned earlier, cities are functionally linked
to rural areas around them. Thus, exchange of
goods and services is performed sometimes
directly and sometimes through a series of
market towns and cities. Thus, cities are
connected directly as well as indirectly with the
villages and also with each other.
extending their domination either directly or
through control over the princely states, they
established their administrative centres, hill-
towns as summer resorts, and added new civil,
The census of India, 1991 defines urban
settlements as “All places which have
municipality, corporation, cantonment board or
notified town area committee and have a minimum
population of 5000 persons, at least 75 per cent
of male workers are engaged in non-agriculture
pursuits and a density of population of at least
400 persons per square kilometer are urban.
Fig. 2.4 : A view of the modern city
Fig. 2.3 : Dispersed settlements in Nagaland
Ev Ev Ev Ev Evolution of olution of olution of olution of olution of T T T T Towns in India owns in India owns in India owns in India owns in India
Towns flourished since prehistoric times in
India. Even at the time of Indus valley
civilisation, towns like Harappa and
Mohanjodaro were in existence. The following
period has witnessed evolution of towns. It
continued with periodic ups and downs until
the arrival of Europeans in India in the
eighteenth century. On the basis of their
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18 India : People and Economy
Year Number of Urban Population % of Total Decennial
Towns/UAs (in Thousands) Population Growth (%)
1901 1,827 25,851.9 10.84 —-
1911 1,815 25,941.6 10.29 0.35
1921 1,949 28,086.2 11.18 8.27
1931 2,072 33,456.0 11.99 19.12
1941 2,250 44,153.3 13.86 31.97
1951 2,843 62,443.7 17.29 41.42
1961 2,365 78,936.6 17.97 26.41
1971 2,590 1,09,114 19.91 38.23
1981 3,378 1,59,463 23.34 46.14
1991 4,689 2,17,611 25.71 36.47
2001 5,161 2,85,355 27.78 31.13
2011* 6,171 3,77,000 31.16 31.08
Table 2.1 : India – Trends of Urbanisation 1901-2011
administrative and military areas to them.
Towns based on modern industries also
evolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be cited
as an example.
After independence, a large number of towns
have been developed as administrative
headquarters, e.g., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar,
Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc., and industrial
centres, such as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri,
Barauni. Some old towns also developed as
satellite towns around metropolitan cities, such
as Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurugram around
Delhi. With increasing investment in rural areas,
a large number of medium and small towns
have developed all over the country.
Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India Urbanisation in India
The level of urbanisation is measured in
terms of percentage of urban population to
total population. The level of urbanisation in
India in 2011 was 31.16 per cent, which is
quite low in comparison to developed
countries. Total urban population has
increased eleven-fold during the twentieth
century. Enlargement of urban centres and
emergence of new towns have played a
significant role in the growth of urban
population and urbanisation in the country.
(Table 2.1). But the growth rate of
urbanisation has slowed down during last
two decades.
*Source: Census of India, 2011 http.//www.censusindia.gov.in (Provisional)
Functional Classification of Towns
Apart from their role as central or nodal places,
many towns and cities perform specialised
services. Some towns and cities specialise in
certain functions and they are known for
some specific activities, products or services.
However, each town performs a number of
functions. On the basis of dominant or
specialised functions, Indian cities and towns
can be broadly classified as follows:
Administrative towns and cities
Towns supporting administrative headquarters
of higher order are administrative towns, such
as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong,
Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar,
Jaipur, Chennai, etc.
Industrial towns
Industries constitute prime motive force of these
cities, such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,
Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.
Transport Cities
They may be ports primarily engaged in export
and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi,
Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc., or hubs of
inland transport, such as Agra, Dhulia,
Mughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
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Human Settlements     19
Commercial towns
Towns and cities specialising in trade and
commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata,
Saharanpur, Satna, etc., are some examples.
Mining towns
These towns have developed in mineral rich
areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,
Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
Garrisson Cantonment towns
These towns emerged as garrisson towns such
as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina,
Udhampur, etc.
List the urban agglomerations/cities
state-wise and see the state-wise
population under this category of cities.
Smart Cities Mission Smart Cities Mission Smart Cities Mission Smart Cities Mission Smart Cities Mission
The objective of the Smart Cities Mission
is to promote cities that provide core
infrastructure, a clean and sustainable
environment and give a decent quality of
life to its citizens. One of the features of
Smart Cities is to apply smart solutions to
infrastructure and services in order to make
them better. For example, making areas
less vulnerable to disasters, using fewer
resources and providing cheaper services.
The focus is on sustainble and inclusive
development and the idea is to look at
compact areas, create a replicable model,
which will act like a lighthouse to other
aspiring cities.
Educational towns
Starting as centres of education, some of the
towns have grown into major campus towns,
such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani,
Allahabad, etc.
Religious and cultural towns
Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri,
Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra,
Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due to
their religious/cultural significance.
Tourist towns
Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi,
Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty),
Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.
The cities are not static in their function. The
functions change due to their dynamic nature.
Even specialised cities, as they grow into
metropolises become multifunctional wherein
industry, business, administration, transport,
etc., become important. The functions get so
intertwined  that the city can not be categorised
in a particular functional class.
EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) Which one of the following towns is NOT located on a river bank?
(a) Agra (c) Patna
(b) Bhopal (d) Kolkata
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