NCERT Textbook - Natural Vegetation | Geography for UPSC CSE PDF Download

 Page 1


H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic?
You might have surely gone to a park if
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same
variety may be found growing wild in the forest
under natural conditions and the same tree
may be the planted one in your garden under
human supervision.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community that has been left undisturbed over
a long time, so as to allow its individual species
to adjust themselves to climate and soil
conditions as fully as possible.
India is a land of great variety of natural
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii,
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation.
Depending upon the variations in the climate
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes
from one region to another.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen and
Semi Evergreen Forests
These forests are found in the western slope
of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They are found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
mean annual temperature above 22
o
C.
Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
In these forests, trees reach great heights up
to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
fruition. As such these forests appear green
all the year round. Species found in these
forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
ebony, etc.
The semi evergreen forests are found in the
less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
have a mixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
provide an evergreen character to these forests.
Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
NATURAL VEGETATION
CHAPTER
Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
2024-25
Page 2


H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic?
You might have surely gone to a park if
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same
variety may be found growing wild in the forest
under natural conditions and the same tree
may be the planted one in your garden under
human supervision.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community that has been left undisturbed over
a long time, so as to allow its individual species
to adjust themselves to climate and soil
conditions as fully as possible.
India is a land of great variety of natural
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii,
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation.
Depending upon the variations in the climate
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes
from one region to another.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen and
Semi Evergreen Forests
These forests are found in the western slope
of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They are found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
mean annual temperature above 22
o
C.
Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
In these forests, trees reach great heights up
to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
fruition. As such these forests appear green
all the year round. Species found in these
forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
ebony, etc.
The semi evergreen forests are found in the
less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
have a mixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
provide an evergreen character to these forests.
Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
NATURAL VEGETATION
CHAPTER
Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
2024-25
43 NATURAL VEGETATION
Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation
2024-25
Page 3


H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic?
You might have surely gone to a park if
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same
variety may be found growing wild in the forest
under natural conditions and the same tree
may be the planted one in your garden under
human supervision.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community that has been left undisturbed over
a long time, so as to allow its individual species
to adjust themselves to climate and soil
conditions as fully as possible.
India is a land of great variety of natural
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii,
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation.
Depending upon the variations in the climate
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes
from one region to another.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen and
Semi Evergreen Forests
These forests are found in the western slope
of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They are found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
mean annual temperature above 22
o
C.
Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
In these forests, trees reach great heights up
to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
fruition. As such these forests appear green
all the year round. Species found in these
forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
ebony, etc.
The semi evergreen forests are found in the
less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
have a mixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
provide an evergreen character to these forests.
Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
NATURAL VEGETATION
CHAPTER
Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
2024-25
43 NATURAL VEGETATION
Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation
2024-25
44 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The British were aware of the economic
value of the forests in India, hence, large scale
exploitation of these forests was started. The
structure of forests was also changed. The oak
forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced
by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway
lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing
plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The
British also used timber for construction
activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. The
protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced
by commercial use.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
These are the most widespread forests in India.
They are also called the monsoon forests. They
spread over regions which receive rainfall
between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the
availability of water, these forests are further
divided into moist and dry deciduous.
The Moist deciduous forests are more
pronounced in the regions which record rainfall
between 100-200 cm. These forests are found
in the northeastern states along the foothills of
Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra,
mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood
etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of
the country, where rainfall ranges between
70 -100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a
transition to the moist deciduous, while on the
drier margins to thorn forests. These forests
are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and
the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the
higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau
and the northern Indian plain, these forests
have a parkland landscape with open stretches
in which teak and other trees interspersed with
patches of grass are common. As the dry
season begins, the trees shed their leaves
completely and the forest appears like a vast
grassland with naked trees all around. Tendu,
palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc.  are
the common trees of these forests. In the
western and southern part of Rajasthan,
vegetation cover is very scanty due to low
rainfall and overgrazing.
Tropical Thorn Forests
Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which
receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist
of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes
semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
remain leafless for most part of the year and
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
Important species found are babool, ber, and
wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.
Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as
the under growth.
Montane Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
Mountain forests can be classified into two
types, the northern mountain forests and the
southern mountain forests.
Figure 5.3 : Deciduous Forests
Figure 5.4 : Tropical Thorn Forests
2024-25
Page 4


H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic?
You might have surely gone to a park if
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same
variety may be found growing wild in the forest
under natural conditions and the same tree
may be the planted one in your garden under
human supervision.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community that has been left undisturbed over
a long time, so as to allow its individual species
to adjust themselves to climate and soil
conditions as fully as possible.
India is a land of great variety of natural
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii,
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation.
Depending upon the variations in the climate
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes
from one region to another.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen and
Semi Evergreen Forests
These forests are found in the western slope
of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They are found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
mean annual temperature above 22
o
C.
Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
In these forests, trees reach great heights up
to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
fruition. As such these forests appear green
all the year round. Species found in these
forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
ebony, etc.
The semi evergreen forests are found in the
less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
have a mixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
provide an evergreen character to these forests.
Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
NATURAL VEGETATION
CHAPTER
Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
2024-25
43 NATURAL VEGETATION
Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation
2024-25
44 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The British were aware of the economic
value of the forests in India, hence, large scale
exploitation of these forests was started. The
structure of forests was also changed. The oak
forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced
by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway
lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing
plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The
British also used timber for construction
activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. The
protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced
by commercial use.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
These are the most widespread forests in India.
They are also called the monsoon forests. They
spread over regions which receive rainfall
between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the
availability of water, these forests are further
divided into moist and dry deciduous.
The Moist deciduous forests are more
pronounced in the regions which record rainfall
between 100-200 cm. These forests are found
in the northeastern states along the foothills of
Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra,
mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood
etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of
the country, where rainfall ranges between
70 -100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a
transition to the moist deciduous, while on the
drier margins to thorn forests. These forests
are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and
the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the
higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau
and the northern Indian plain, these forests
have a parkland landscape with open stretches
in which teak and other trees interspersed with
patches of grass are common. As the dry
season begins, the trees shed their leaves
completely and the forest appears like a vast
grassland with naked trees all around. Tendu,
palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc.  are
the common trees of these forests. In the
western and southern part of Rajasthan,
vegetation cover is very scanty due to low
rainfall and overgrazing.
Tropical Thorn Forests
Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which
receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist
of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes
semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
remain leafless for most part of the year and
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
Important species found are babool, ber, and
wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.
Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as
the under growth.
Montane Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
Mountain forests can be classified into two
types, the northern mountain forests and the
southern mountain forests.
Figure 5.3 : Deciduous Forests
Figure 5.4 : Tropical Thorn Forests
2024-25
45 NATURAL VEGETATION
The Himalayan ranges show a succession
of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra,
which change in with the altitude. Deciduous
forests are found in the foothills of the
Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet
temperate type of forests between an altitude
of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of
northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal
and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees
such as oak and chestnut are predominant.
Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also
well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine as
a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly
valued endemic species grows mainly in the
western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar
is a durable wood mainly used in construction
activity.  Similarly, the chinar and the walnut,
which sustain the famous Kashmir
handicrafts, belong to this zone.  Blue pine and
spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m.
At many places in this zone, temperate
grasslands are also found. But in the higher
reaches there is a transition to Alpine forests
and pastures. Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch
and rhododendrons, etc. occur between
3,000-4,000 m. However, these pastures are
used extensively for transhumance by tribes
like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas
and the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover
because of relatively higher precipitation than
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the
tundra vegetation.
The southern mountain forests include the
forests found in three distinct areas of
Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the
Vindhyas and the Nilgiris.  As they are closer
to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the
sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher
regions, and subtropical on the lower regions
of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.  The temperate
forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris,
Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other
trees of this forest of economic significance
include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona and
wattle. Such forests are also found in the
Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
About 70 per cent of this comprises areas
under paddy cultivation.  The total area of wet
land is 3.9 million hectares.  Two sites —
Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National
Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of
International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
An international convention is an
agreement among member states of
the United Nations.
The country’s wetlands have been grouped
into eight categories, viz.  (i) the reservoirs of the
Deccan Plateau in the south together with the
lagoons and  other wetlands of the southern
west coast; (ii) the vast saline expanses of
Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
(iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat
eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo
National Park) and Madhya Pradesh; (iv) the
delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast
(Chilika Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the
Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the
Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the
hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the montane
region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the
mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island
arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves  grow along the coasts in the salt
marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
Figure 5.5 : Montane Forests
2024-25
Page 5


H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic?
You might have surely gone to a park if
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same
variety may be found growing wild in the forest
under natural conditions and the same tree
may be the planted one in your garden under
human supervision.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community that has been left undisturbed over
a long time, so as to allow its individual species
to adjust themselves to climate and soil
conditions as fully as possible.
India is a land of great variety of natural
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii,
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation.
Depending upon the variations in the climate
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes
from one region to another.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen and
Semi Evergreen Forests
These forests are found in the western slope
of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They are found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
mean annual temperature above 22
o
C.
Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
In these forests, trees reach great heights up
to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
fruition. As such these forests appear green
all the year round. Species found in these
forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
ebony, etc.
The semi evergreen forests are found in the
less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
have a mixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
provide an evergreen character to these forests.
Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
NATURAL VEGETATION
CHAPTER
Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
2024-25
43 NATURAL VEGETATION
Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation
2024-25
44 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The British were aware of the economic
value of the forests in India, hence, large scale
exploitation of these forests was started. The
structure of forests was also changed. The oak
forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced
by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway
lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing
plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The
British also used timber for construction
activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. The
protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced
by commercial use.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
These are the most widespread forests in India.
They are also called the monsoon forests. They
spread over regions which receive rainfall
between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the
availability of water, these forests are further
divided into moist and dry deciduous.
The Moist deciduous forests are more
pronounced in the regions which record rainfall
between 100-200 cm. These forests are found
in the northeastern states along the foothills of
Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra,
mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood
etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of
the country, where rainfall ranges between
70 -100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a
transition to the moist deciduous, while on the
drier margins to thorn forests. These forests
are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and
the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the
higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau
and the northern Indian plain, these forests
have a parkland landscape with open stretches
in which teak and other trees interspersed with
patches of grass are common. As the dry
season begins, the trees shed their leaves
completely and the forest appears like a vast
grassland with naked trees all around. Tendu,
palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc.  are
the common trees of these forests. In the
western and southern part of Rajasthan,
vegetation cover is very scanty due to low
rainfall and overgrazing.
Tropical Thorn Forests
Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which
receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist
of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes
semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
remain leafless for most part of the year and
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
Important species found are babool, ber, and
wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.
Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as
the under growth.
Montane Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
Mountain forests can be classified into two
types, the northern mountain forests and the
southern mountain forests.
Figure 5.3 : Deciduous Forests
Figure 5.4 : Tropical Thorn Forests
2024-25
45 NATURAL VEGETATION
The Himalayan ranges show a succession
of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra,
which change in with the altitude. Deciduous
forests are found in the foothills of the
Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet
temperate type of forests between an altitude
of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of
northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal
and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees
such as oak and chestnut are predominant.
Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also
well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine as
a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly
valued endemic species grows mainly in the
western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar
is a durable wood mainly used in construction
activity.  Similarly, the chinar and the walnut,
which sustain the famous Kashmir
handicrafts, belong to this zone.  Blue pine and
spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m.
At many places in this zone, temperate
grasslands are also found. But in the higher
reaches there is a transition to Alpine forests
and pastures. Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch
and rhododendrons, etc. occur between
3,000-4,000 m. However, these pastures are
used extensively for transhumance by tribes
like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas
and the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover
because of relatively higher precipitation than
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the
tundra vegetation.
The southern mountain forests include the
forests found in three distinct areas of
Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the
Vindhyas and the Nilgiris.  As they are closer
to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the
sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher
regions, and subtropical on the lower regions
of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.  The temperate
forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris,
Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other
trees of this forest of economic significance
include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona and
wattle. Such forests are also found in the
Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
About 70 per cent of this comprises areas
under paddy cultivation.  The total area of wet
land is 3.9 million hectares.  Two sites —
Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National
Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of
International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
An international convention is an
agreement among member states of
the United Nations.
The country’s wetlands have been grouped
into eight categories, viz.  (i) the reservoirs of the
Deccan Plateau in the south together with the
lagoons and  other wetlands of the southern
west coast; (ii) the vast saline expanses of
Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
(iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat
eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo
National Park) and Madhya Pradesh; (iv) the
delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast
(Chilika Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the
Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the
Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the
hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the montane
region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the
mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island
arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves  grow along the coasts in the salt
marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
Figure 5.5 : Montane Forests
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46 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species
of plants.  Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant
water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter
to a wide variety of birds.
In India, the mangrove forests spread over
6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the world’s
mangrove forests. They are highly developed in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of
significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and
the Krishna deltas.  These forests too, are being
encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.
FOREST CONSERVATION
Forests have an intricate
interrelationship with life and
environment. These provide numerous
direct and indirect advantages to our
economy and society. Hence, conservation
of forest is of vital importance to the
survival and prosperity of humankind.
Accordingly, the Government of India
proposed to have a nation-wide forest
conservation policy, and adopted a forest
policy in 1952, which was further modified
in 1988. According to the new forest
policy, the Government will emphasise
sustainable forest management in order
to conserve and expand forest reserve on
the one hand, and to meet the needs of
local people on the other.
The forest policy aimed at : (i) bringing 33
per cent of the geographical areas under forest
cover;  (ii) maintaining environmental
stability and to restore forests where
ecological balance was disturbed; (iii)
conserving the natural heritage of the country,
its biological diversity and genetic pool; (iv)
checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands
and reduction of floods and droughts; (v)
increasing the forest cover through social
forestry and afforestation on degraded land; (vi)
increasing the productivity of forests to make
timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural
population dependant on forests, and
encourage the substitution of wood; (vii)
creating of a massive peoples movement
involving women to encourage planting of trees,
stop felling of trees and thus, reduce pressure
on the existing forest.
Forests and Life
To a vast number of tribal people, the
forest is a home, a livelihood, their
very existence. It provides them food,
fruits of all kinds, edible leaves, honey,
nourishing roots and wild game. It
provides them with material to build
their houses and items for practising
their arts. The importance of forests
in tribal economy is well-known as
they are the source of sustenance and
livelihood for tribal communities. It is
commonly believed that the tribal
communities live in harmony with
nature and protect forests.
Forest and tribals are very closely
related. The age-old knowledge of
tribals regarding forestry can be used
in the development of forests. Rather
than treating tribals as minor forest
produce collectors they should be
made growers of minor forest produce
and encouraged to participate in
conservation.
Figure 5.6 : Mangrove Forests
Based on the forest conservation policy the
following steps were initiated:
Social Forestry
Social forestry means the management and
protection of forests and afforestation on barren
lands with the purpose of helping in the
environmental, social and rural development.
The National Commission on Agriculture
(1976) has classified social forestry into three
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