NCERT Textbook: Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture (Introduction to Indian Art) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


I
N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards
Spain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim
merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of
six hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslims
had begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the
early thirteenth century that large-scale building activity was
begun by the Turkish State, established after the Turkish
conquest of northern India.
By the twelfth century India was already familiar with
monumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certain
techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, such
as trabeation, brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat
roof or a small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood
and stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top
structure. Now, however, the archuate form of construction was
introduced gradually in which arches could support the weight
of the domes. Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs
(series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes,
resting on pendentives and squinches enabled spanning of large
spaces leaving the interiors free of pillars.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was
that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and
traditions and combined them with their own architectural
practices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many
structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations
came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural elements. These
architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
According to E. B. Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations of
god everywhere in multiple forms as part of their religious faith
whereas a Muslim thought of only one with Muhammad as His
Prophet. Hence, Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures and
paintings. Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on any
surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting
of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy on
plaster and stone.
SOME ASPECTS OF
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
8
Qutub  Minar , Delhi
Page 2


I
N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards
Spain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim
merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of
six hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslims
had begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the
early thirteenth century that large-scale building activity was
begun by the Turkish State, established after the Turkish
conquest of northern India.
By the twelfth century India was already familiar with
monumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certain
techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, such
as trabeation, brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat
roof or a small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood
and stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top
structure. Now, however, the archuate form of construction was
introduced gradually in which arches could support the weight
of the domes. Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs
(series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes,
resting on pendentives and squinches enabled spanning of large
spaces leaving the interiors free of pillars.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was
that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and
traditions and combined them with their own architectural
practices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many
structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations
came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural elements. These
architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
According to E. B. Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations of
god everywhere in multiple forms as part of their religious faith
whereas a Muslim thought of only one with Muhammad as His
Prophet. Hence, Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures and
paintings. Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on any
surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting
of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy on
plaster and stone.
SOME ASPECTS OF
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
8
Qutub  Minar , Delhi
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 110
TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural
building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,
dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,
sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over
a period of time. These were thus additions in the existing types
of buildings in the sub-continent.
Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewhere
in the world, were constructed by wealthy people.  They were, in
descending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,
merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of the
obvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic
structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of
Indian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on the
availability of materials, limitations of resources and skills and
the sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion and
religiosity were very important to people of medieval India, as
elsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.
CATEGORIES OF STYLES
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally
categorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial
Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style
(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,
Golconda). These categories help in understanding better the
specificities of architectural styles rather than putting them in
immutable slots.
Intricate jali work,
Amer Fort, Jaipur
Page 3


I
N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards
Spain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim
merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of
six hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslims
had begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the
early thirteenth century that large-scale building activity was
begun by the Turkish State, established after the Turkish
conquest of northern India.
By the twelfth century India was already familiar with
monumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certain
techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, such
as trabeation, brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat
roof or a small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood
and stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top
structure. Now, however, the archuate form of construction was
introduced gradually in which arches could support the weight
of the domes. Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs
(series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes,
resting on pendentives and squinches enabled spanning of large
spaces leaving the interiors free of pillars.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was
that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and
traditions and combined them with their own architectural
practices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many
structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations
came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural elements. These
architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
According to E. B. Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations of
god everywhere in multiple forms as part of their religious faith
whereas a Muslim thought of only one with Muhammad as His
Prophet. Hence, Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures and
paintings. Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on any
surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting
of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy on
plaster and stone.
SOME ASPECTS OF
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
8
Qutub  Minar , Delhi
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 110
TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural
building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,
dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,
sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over
a period of time. These were thus additions in the existing types
of buildings in the sub-continent.
Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewhere
in the world, were constructed by wealthy people.  They were, in
descending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,
merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of the
obvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic
structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of
Indian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on the
availability of materials, limitations of resources and skills and
the sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion and
religiosity were very important to people of medieval India, as
elsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.
CATEGORIES OF STYLES
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally
categorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial
Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style
(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,
Golconda). These categories help in understanding better the
specificities of architectural styles rather than putting them in
immutable slots.
Intricate jali work,
Amer Fort, Jaipur
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 111
ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES
Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur
is regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedly
regional character for patrons borrowed elements from regional
temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of
bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs,
mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth century white marble dargah
of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincial
style and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughal
tombs.
DECORATIVE FORMS
These forms included designing on plaster through incision or
stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.
Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs
included varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent and
places outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was used
to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. Walls were
also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with
flower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating
the ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In the
fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also used
to surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue,
turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques of
tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use of
for surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.
At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.
Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and
low relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carving
has a three- dimensional look. The arches were plain and squat
and sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth century
onwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.
Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.
The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes,
chatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with an
inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.
Pietra dura work, Agra
Dodo panel on the wall,
Agra
Page 4


I
N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards
Spain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim
merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of
six hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslims
had begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the
early thirteenth century that large-scale building activity was
begun by the Turkish State, established after the Turkish
conquest of northern India.
By the twelfth century India was already familiar with
monumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certain
techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, such
as trabeation, brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat
roof or a small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood
and stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top
structure. Now, however, the archuate form of construction was
introduced gradually in which arches could support the weight
of the domes. Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs
(series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes,
resting on pendentives and squinches enabled spanning of large
spaces leaving the interiors free of pillars.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was
that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and
traditions and combined them with their own architectural
practices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many
structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations
came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural elements. These
architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
According to E. B. Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations of
god everywhere in multiple forms as part of their religious faith
whereas a Muslim thought of only one with Muhammad as His
Prophet. Hence, Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures and
paintings. Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on any
surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting
of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy on
plaster and stone.
SOME ASPECTS OF
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
8
Qutub  Minar , Delhi
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 110
TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural
building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,
dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,
sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over
a period of time. These were thus additions in the existing types
of buildings in the sub-continent.
Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewhere
in the world, were constructed by wealthy people.  They were, in
descending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,
merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of the
obvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic
structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of
Indian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on the
availability of materials, limitations of resources and skills and
the sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion and
religiosity were very important to people of medieval India, as
elsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.
CATEGORIES OF STYLES
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally
categorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial
Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style
(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,
Golconda). These categories help in understanding better the
specificities of architectural styles rather than putting them in
immutable slots.
Intricate jali work,
Amer Fort, Jaipur
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 111
ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES
Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur
is regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedly
regional character for patrons borrowed elements from regional
temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of
bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs,
mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth century white marble dargah
of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincial
style and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughal
tombs.
DECORATIVE FORMS
These forms included designing on plaster through incision or
stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.
Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs
included varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent and
places outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was used
to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. Walls were
also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with
flower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating
the ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In the
fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also used
to surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue,
turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques of
tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use of
for surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.
At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.
Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and
low relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carving
has a three- dimensional look. The arches were plain and squat
and sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth century
onwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.
Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.
The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes,
chatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with an
inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.
Pietra dura work, Agra
Dodo panel on the wall,
Agra
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 112
MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION
The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely
constructed of rubble masonary, which was easily available. These
walls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or
dressed stone. An amazing range of stones were utilised for
construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.
Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.
From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were also
used for construction and these imparted greater flexibility to
the structures. In this phase there was more reliance on local
materials.
FORTS
Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular
feature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power of
a king. When such a fort was captured by an attacking army the
vanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty.
This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victorious
king. Some examples of strong, complex edifices which still
exercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor,
Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda.
Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage to
construct forts. These heights gave a good perspective of the
region, strategic advantage for security, unfettered and
unhindered space to make residential and official complexes while
simultaneously creating a sense of awe in the people. Other
complexities woven into such topography were concentric circles
Aerial view,
Daulatabad Fort
Page 5


I
N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards
Spain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim
merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of
six hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslims
had begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the
early thirteenth century that large-scale building activity was
begun by the Turkish State, established after the Turkish
conquest of northern India.
By the twelfth century India was already familiar with
monumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certain
techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, such
as trabeation, brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat
roof or a small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood
and stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top
structure. Now, however, the archuate form of construction was
introduced gradually in which arches could support the weight
of the domes. Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs
(series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes,
resting on pendentives and squinches enabled spanning of large
spaces leaving the interiors free of pillars.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was
that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and
traditions and combined them with their own architectural
practices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many
structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations
came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural elements. These
architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
According to E. B. Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations of
god everywhere in multiple forms as part of their religious faith
whereas a Muslim thought of only one with Muhammad as His
Prophet. Hence, Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures and
paintings. Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on any
surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting
of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy on
plaster and stone.
SOME ASPECTS OF
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
8
Qutub  Minar , Delhi
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 110
TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural
building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,
dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,
sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over
a period of time. These were thus additions in the existing types
of buildings in the sub-continent.
Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewhere
in the world, were constructed by wealthy people.  They were, in
descending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,
merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of the
obvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic
structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of
Indian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on the
availability of materials, limitations of resources and skills and
the sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion and
religiosity were very important to people of medieval India, as
elsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.
CATEGORIES OF STYLES
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally
categorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial
Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style
(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,
Golconda). These categories help in understanding better the
specificities of architectural styles rather than putting them in
immutable slots.
Intricate jali work,
Amer Fort, Jaipur
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 111
ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES
Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur
is regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedly
regional character for patrons borrowed elements from regional
temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of
bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs,
mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth century white marble dargah
of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincial
style and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughal
tombs.
DECORATIVE FORMS
These forms included designing on plaster through incision or
stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.
Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs
included varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent and
places outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was used
to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. Walls were
also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with
flower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating
the ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In the
fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also used
to surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue,
turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques of
tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use of
for surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.
At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.
Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and
low relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carving
has a three- dimensional look. The arches were plain and squat
and sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth century
onwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.
Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.
The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes,
chatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with an
inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.
Pietra dura work, Agra
Dodo panel on the wall,
Agra
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART 112
MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION
The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely
constructed of rubble masonary, which was easily available. These
walls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or
dressed stone. An amazing range of stones were utilised for
construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.
Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.
From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were also
used for construction and these imparted greater flexibility to
the structures. In this phase there was more reliance on local
materials.
FORTS
Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular
feature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power of
a king. When such a fort was captured by an attacking army the
vanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty.
This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victorious
king. Some examples of strong, complex edifices which still
exercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor,
Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda.
Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage to
construct forts. These heights gave a good perspective of the
region, strategic advantage for security, unfettered and
unhindered space to make residential and official complexes while
simultaneously creating a sense of awe in the people. Other
complexities woven into such topography were concentric circles
Aerial view,
Daulatabad Fort
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 113
of outer walls as in Golconda, so that the enemy had to breach
these at all stages before getting in.
Daulatabad had several strategic devices to confound the
enemy, such as staggered entrances so that gates could not be
opened even with the help of elephants. It also had twin forts,
one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by a
complex defence design arrangement. One wrong turn in the
labyrinth or complex pathway could lead to the enemy soldier
going in circles or falling to his death several hundred feet below.
The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height made
it impossible to scale. It had had many habitations and usages.
Babur, who did not find much merit in many things he saw in
Hindustan, was said to have been overawed at the sight of the
Gwalior Fort. Chittorgarh bears the distinction of being the largest
fort in Asia and was occupied for the longest length of time as
the seat of power. It has many types of buildings including
stambhas or towers to signify victory and bravery. It was replete
with numerous water bodies. Innumerable acts of heroism have
been associated with the principal people in the fort, forming the
substance of many a legend. An interesting aspect associated
with forts is that within the palace complexes stylistic and
decorative influences were absorbed most liberally.
MINARS
Another form of stambha or tower was the minar, a common feature
in the sub-continent. Two most striking minars of medieval times
are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad
Gwalior Fort