NCERT Textbook - Writing and City Life | History Class 11 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

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Writing and City Life
 early societies
2024-25
Page 2


1
i
Writing and City Life
 early societies
2024-25
2 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
I
N this section, we will read about early societies which is
often traced  to the beginnings of human existence,
from the remote past, millions of years ago. Your teachers
will inform you how humans first emerged in Africa and how
archaeologists have studied these early phases of history from
remains of bones and stone tools.
Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of
early people – to find out about the shelters in which they lived,
the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals,
and the ways in which they expressed themselves. Other
important developments included the use of fire and of language.
And, finally, you can find out whether the lives of people who live
by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand
the past.
Theme 1, included in the section, deals with some of the
earliest cities – those of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These
cities developed around temples, and were centres of long-distance
trade. Archaeological evidence – remains of old settlements –
and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct
the lives of the different people who lived there – craftspeople,
scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice
how pastoral people played an important role in some of these
towns. A question to think about is whether the many activities
that went on in cities would have been possible if writing had
not developed.
You may wonder as to how people who for millions of years
had lived in forests, in caves or temporary shelters and rock
shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities. Well, the
story is a long one and is related to several developments that
took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment of the
first cities.
One of the most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift
from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around
 early societies
2024-25
Page 3


1
i
Writing and City Life
 early societies
2024-25
2 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
I
N this section, we will read about early societies which is
often traced  to the beginnings of human existence,
from the remote past, millions of years ago. Your teachers
will inform you how humans first emerged in Africa and how
archaeologists have studied these early phases of history from
remains of bones and stone tools.
Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of
early people – to find out about the shelters in which they lived,
the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals,
and the ways in which they expressed themselves. Other
important developments included the use of fire and of language.
And, finally, you can find out whether the lives of people who live
by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand
the past.
Theme 1, included in the section, deals with some of the
earliest cities – those of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These
cities developed around temples, and were centres of long-distance
trade. Archaeological evidence – remains of old settlements –
and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct
the lives of the different people who lived there – craftspeople,
scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice
how pastoral people played an important role in some of these
towns. A question to think about is whether the many activities
that went on in cities would have been possible if writing had
not developed.
You may wonder as to how people who for millions of years
had lived in forests, in caves or temporary shelters and rock
shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities. Well, the
story is a long one and is related to several developments that
took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment of the
first cities.
One of the most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift
from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around
 early societies
2024-25
3
10,000 years ago. As you will be informed by your teacher, prior
to the adoption of agriculture, people had gathered plant produce
as a source of food. Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds
of plants – where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit
and so on. From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia,
wheat and barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown.
In East and Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet
and rice. Millet was also grown in Africa. Around the same time,
people learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goat,
cattle, pig and donkey. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax, and
animal fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat
later, about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle
and donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts.
These developments led to other changes as well. When people
grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops
ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that,
people built more permanent structures in which to live.
This was also the time when some communities learnt how to
make earthen pots. These were used to store grain and other
produce, and to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from
the new grains that were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of
attention was given to processing foods to make them tasty and
digestible.
The way stone tools were made also changed. While earlier
methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment
were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of
grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for
processing and grinding grain, as well as stone axes and hoes,
which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging
the earth to sow seeds.
In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as
copper and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used
for their distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way
for the more extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools
subsequently.
There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce
from distant lands (and seas). This included wood, stones,
including precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shell,
and obsidian (hardened) volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going
from place to place, carrying goods and ideas with them.
With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and
the movements of people, in place of the small communities of
early people there now grew small states. While these changes
took place slowly, over several thousand years, the pace
quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes
had far-reaching consequences. Some scholars have described
EARLY SOCIETIES
2024-25
Page 4


1
i
Writing and City Life
 early societies
2024-25
2 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
I
N this section, we will read about early societies which is
often traced  to the beginnings of human existence,
from the remote past, millions of years ago. Your teachers
will inform you how humans first emerged in Africa and how
archaeologists have studied these early phases of history from
remains of bones and stone tools.
Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of
early people – to find out about the shelters in which they lived,
the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals,
and the ways in which they expressed themselves. Other
important developments included the use of fire and of language.
And, finally, you can find out whether the lives of people who live
by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand
the past.
Theme 1, included in the section, deals with some of the
earliest cities – those of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These
cities developed around temples, and were centres of long-distance
trade. Archaeological evidence – remains of old settlements –
and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct
the lives of the different people who lived there – craftspeople,
scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice
how pastoral people played an important role in some of these
towns. A question to think about is whether the many activities
that went on in cities would have been possible if writing had
not developed.
You may wonder as to how people who for millions of years
had lived in forests, in caves or temporary shelters and rock
shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities. Well, the
story is a long one and is related to several developments that
took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment of the
first cities.
One of the most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift
from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around
 early societies
2024-25
3
10,000 years ago. As you will be informed by your teacher, prior
to the adoption of agriculture, people had gathered plant produce
as a source of food. Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds
of plants – where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit
and so on. From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia,
wheat and barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown.
In East and Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet
and rice. Millet was also grown in Africa. Around the same time,
people learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goat,
cattle, pig and donkey. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax, and
animal fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat
later, about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle
and donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts.
These developments led to other changes as well. When people
grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops
ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that,
people built more permanent structures in which to live.
This was also the time when some communities learnt how to
make earthen pots. These were used to store grain and other
produce, and to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from
the new grains that were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of
attention was given to processing foods to make them tasty and
digestible.
The way stone tools were made also changed. While earlier
methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment
were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of
grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for
processing and grinding grain, as well as stone axes and hoes,
which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging
the earth to sow seeds.
In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as
copper and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used
for their distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way
for the more extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools
subsequently.
There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce
from distant lands (and seas). This included wood, stones,
including precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shell,
and obsidian (hardened) volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going
from place to place, carrying goods and ideas with them.
With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and
the movements of people, in place of the small communities of
early people there now grew small states. While these changes
took place slowly, over several thousand years, the pace
quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes
had far-reaching consequences. Some scholars have described
EARLY SOCIETIES
2024-25
4 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
this as a revolution, as the lives of people were probably transformed
beyond recognition. Look out for continuities and changes as you
explore these two contrasting themes in early history.
Remember too, that we have selected only some examples of
early societies for detailed study. There were other kinds of early
societies, including farming communities and pastoral peoples.
And there were other peoples who were hunter-gatherers as well
as city dwellers, apart from the examples selected. Timeline I
gives you some hints about those societies and people.
2024-25
Page 5


1
i
Writing and City Life
 early societies
2024-25
2 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
I
N this section, we will read about early societies which is
often traced  to the beginnings of human existence,
from the remote past, millions of years ago. Your teachers
will inform you how humans first emerged in Africa and how
archaeologists have studied these early phases of history from
remains of bones and stone tools.
Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of
early people – to find out about the shelters in which they lived,
the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals,
and the ways in which they expressed themselves. Other
important developments included the use of fire and of language.
And, finally, you can find out whether the lives of people who live
by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand
the past.
Theme 1, included in the section, deals with some of the
earliest cities – those of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These
cities developed around temples, and were centres of long-distance
trade. Archaeological evidence – remains of old settlements –
and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct
the lives of the different people who lived there – craftspeople,
scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice
how pastoral people played an important role in some of these
towns. A question to think about is whether the many activities
that went on in cities would have been possible if writing had
not developed.
You may wonder as to how people who for millions of years
had lived in forests, in caves or temporary shelters and rock
shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities. Well, the
story is a long one and is related to several developments that
took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment of the
first cities.
One of the most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift
from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around
 early societies
2024-25
3
10,000 years ago. As you will be informed by your teacher, prior
to the adoption of agriculture, people had gathered plant produce
as a source of food. Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds
of plants – where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit
and so on. From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia,
wheat and barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown.
In East and Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet
and rice. Millet was also grown in Africa. Around the same time,
people learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goat,
cattle, pig and donkey. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax, and
animal fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat
later, about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle
and donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts.
These developments led to other changes as well. When people
grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops
ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that,
people built more permanent structures in which to live.
This was also the time when some communities learnt how to
make earthen pots. These were used to store grain and other
produce, and to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from
the new grains that were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of
attention was given to processing foods to make them tasty and
digestible.
The way stone tools were made also changed. While earlier
methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment
were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of
grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for
processing and grinding grain, as well as stone axes and hoes,
which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging
the earth to sow seeds.
In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as
copper and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used
for their distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way
for the more extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools
subsequently.
There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce
from distant lands (and seas). This included wood, stones,
including precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shell,
and obsidian (hardened) volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going
from place to place, carrying goods and ideas with them.
With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and
the movements of people, in place of the small communities of
early people there now grew small states. While these changes
took place slowly, over several thousand years, the pace
quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes
had far-reaching consequences. Some scholars have described
EARLY SOCIETIES
2024-25
4 THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
this as a revolution, as the lives of people were probably transformed
beyond recognition. Look out for continuities and changes as you
explore these two contrasting themes in early history.
Remember too, that we have selected only some examples of
early societies for detailed study. There were other kinds of early
societies, including farming communities and pastoral peoples.
And there were other peoples who were hunter-gatherers as well
as city dwellers, apart from the examples selected. Timeline I
gives you some hints about those societies and people.
2024-25
5 TIMELINE-I
This timeline focuses on the
emergence of humans and the
domestication of plants and animals.
It highlights some major technological
developments such as the use of fire,
metals, plough agriculture and the
wheel. Other processes that are shown
include the emergence of cities and the
use of writing. You will also find
mention of some of the earliest
empires – a theme that will be
developed in Timeline II.
How to Read Timelines
You will find a timeline like this
one in every section.
Each of these will indicate some of
the major processes and events in
world history.
As you study the timelines,
remember—
• Processes through which
ordinary women and men have
shaped history are far more
difficult to date than events
such as a war between kings.
• Some dates may indicate the
beginning of a process, or when
it reaches maturation.
• Historians are constantly
revising dates in the light of
new evidence, or new ways of
assessing old data.
• While we have divided
the timelines on a geographical
basis as a matter of
convenience, actual historical
developments often transcend
these divisions.
• Also, there is a chronological
overlap in historical processes.
• Only some landmarks in human
history have been shown here –
we have highlighted the
processes dealt with in the
themes that follow, which also
have separate timelines.
• Wherever you see a*, you will
also find an illustration related
to the date along the column.
• Blank spaces do not mean that
nothing was happening –
sometimes these indicate that
we do not as yet know what
was happening.
• You will be learning more
about South Asian history in
general and Indian history in
particular next year. The dates
selected for South Asia
are only indicative of some
of the developments in the
subcontinent.
Timeline  i
(6 MYA TO 1 BCE)
2024-25