Notes: Nature & Structure of Sciences | Science & Pedagogy Paper 2 for CTET & TET Exams - CTET & State TET PDF Download

Introduction

•  Science, as a subject, offers a distinct viewpoint. It goes beyond just observation, experimentation, and analysis; it encompasses a way of life. Science is an ever-growing collection of knowledge built through inquiry. It's essential for a Science teacher to grasp all aspects of this discipline. 
•  The current unit will explore the meaning and nature of Science in depth, helping to clear up any misconceptions. It will also explain the process of scientific inquiry and discuss the role of Science in society. Additionally, this unit aims to foster an understanding of the relationship between Science and society in students' minds. Science has its own set of values, which will be addressed in this unit as well. 

Understanding Science

 Science is a way of knowing about the world around us. It helps us understand how things work, like why plants grow, how animals behave, and what makes the weather change. Scientists use evidence, like observations and experiments, to test their ideas and learn new things. Science is not about supernatural beliefs; it's about studying the natural world and finding out the reasons behind different phenomena. 

• Science is about understanding the natural world. For example, when we learn about how plants grow or what animals do, we are doing Science. 
• Science is not just about collecting facts. It's about figuring out why things happen by testing and checking ideas. 
• Scientists from different fields do something similar. They come up with ideas and then check if they are right by looking at evidence. 
• Science is a part of our everyday lives. Scientists are regular people with feelings and experiences, just like us. They feel happy, compete with others, and face success and failure. 
• As a teacher, you can help students see that Science is not just about heavy books or people in labs. There are many different kinds of Scientists doing all sorts of interesting work. 
• Think about why some subjects have “Science” at the end, like Social Science or Environmental Science. This can help us understand what makes something a Science. 
• A famous Scientist once said that if a subject needs “Science” at the end, it might not really be a Science. Subjects like Physics, Chemistry, and Biology don't need this, but Social Science does. 

Myths about the Nature of Science

Myths about Nature of Science (McComos, 1998)

• Hypotheses become theories, which then become laws.
• Scientific laws and similar concepts are absolute.
• A hypothesis is an educated guess.
• A general and universal scientific method exists.
• Evidence collected carefully will lead to certain knowledge.
• Science and its methods provide absolute proof.
• Science is more procedural than creative.
• Science can answer all questions.
• Scientists are always objective.
• Experiments are the main way to gain scientific knowledge.
• Scientific conclusions are checked for accuracy.
• Accepting new scientific knowledge is simple.
• Science models truly represent reality.
• Science and technology are the same.
• Science is a solitary pursuit.

Understanding these myths is essential for discussing them with students. Here are some examples and activities to help learners grasp that these statements are myths.

Common Myths Explained

• One widespread myth is that “a general and universal scientific method exists.” Many teachers and students believe there is a set sequence of steps that scientists follow in their research. Science textbooks often outline these steps, which include defining a problem, forming a hypothesis, making observations, testing the hypothesis, drawing conclusions, and reporting results. Over time, this leads to the false belief that a single, universal scientific method is in place.
• Another common myth is that “scientific laws and other ideas are absolute.” This misconception arises from traditional teaching methods that emphasize universal laws and theories. Science books often highlight equations like E=mc² and principles like the law of gravitation, which reinforces the idea that these concepts are unchanging. As a teacher, it’s crucial to convey that scientific knowledge is tentative and not fixed. For example, the understanding of atoms has evolved; they were once seen as the smallest particles, but discoveries of subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons have changed that view. Moreover, the periodic table has expanded from around 60 elements in Mendeleev’s time to 118 today, illustrating the ongoing development of scientific knowledge.

Understanding the Nature of Science

• The nature of Science is crucial for guiding Science teachers in accurately representing Science to students. It involves not just conveying facts and concepts but also the processes through which scientific knowledge is generated.
• A strong understanding of the nature of Science enables teachers to facilitate conceptual changes and comprehend how learners acquire knowledge.
• If a teacher's understanding of the nature of Science is not aligned with current interpretations, it can hinder effective explanations and interpretations of scientific issues.
• With the emphasis on a constructivist approach to knowledge creation, teachers need to grasp various aspects of the nature of Science to create opportunities for learners to generate knowledge.
• Research has shown that the way Science is introduced to learners depends on teachers' views of the nature of Science, highlighting the importance of enhancing teachers' understanding in this area for effective Science education.

Scientific Knowledge is Tentative 

• Scientific knowledge can change over time. This happens because we make new observations and reinterpret what we already know.
• The solar system is a familiar topic. Teachers can point out that there are currently eight planets. However, there used to be a ninth planet, Pluto, which was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006.
• This change occurred because astronomers found another object in the Kuiper belt that is larger than Pluto, leading to Pluto losing its planetary status. This illustrates that science is tentative; its facts and theories can change based on new findings.
• Another common theme in science is evolution and connecting links. The tentative nature of science can be highlighted with examples such as dinosaurs.
• Initially, it was thought that dinosaurs evolved from reptiles, which include animals like lizards and snakes. However, scientists now believe that dinosaurs evolved from birds.
• A significant discovery was made in 1861 when the Archaeopteryx, a feathered dinosaur, was found in Germany. This dinosaur acts as a connecting link between reptiles and birds.
• The Archaeopteryx has features of both groups: it has reptilian traits like teeth and a beak, as well as avian characteristics like wings.
• In the late 1960s, John Ostrom from Yale University identified 22 features in the bones of meat-eating dinosaurs that are only found in birds. This supports the idea that birds are related to dinosaurs.
• These examples show that science is always evolving and can change. However, there are some scientific concepts that have remained relevant over time.
• For instance, Sir Isaac Newton's three laws of motion have stood the test of time. While these laws have been modified, the idea of a field has replaced the earlier concept of force acting at a distance.
• As a science teacher, it is important to present both sides of the argument, acknowledging that some scientific principles are universally applicable.

Observations of the Natural World

• Learners should have enough chances to grasp the distinction between observations and inferences.
• For example, you can present various types of plantssuch as:
  • Desert plant
  • Water plant
  • Climbing plant
• Ask learners to create a list of observations about these three different types of plants.
• Organize their responses into two lists: 
  • Observations
  • Inferences
•  As a teacher, it is important to understand the difference between an observation and an inference. 
• An observation is what one actually sees, while an inference is a conclusion drawn based on what has been observed.

Domains of Science

Let us try to understand what these domains are. In order to do so, we have to enlist various activities, facts, and processes related to Science. You can think of scientific facts, concepts, theories, laws and some methods and processes.
However, when describing the nature of Science, educators have converged on a key set of concepts, like: tentativeness, empirical evidence, observation and inference, scientific laws and theories, scientific method, creativity, objectivity and subjectivity etc. All these can figure in the three major domains of Science, as shown in Figure:

Science as a body of knowledge

• The first area shows the essence of Science as a collection of knowledge.
• Generally, we think of Science as a whole that includes facts, definitions, concepts, principles, theories, and laws.
• You may have heard many people discussing scientific knowledge about the Earth, stars, and other topics.
• If you look at any science textbook, you will find many facts, concepts, definitions, principles, and theories related to Science.
• Some of these ideas have been accepted for a long time and have been part of scientific knowledge for generations.
• Some important features of scientific knowledge include:
  • It is tentative.
  • Scientific ideas are shaped by social and historical contexts.
  • The goal of Science is to explain natural events, while technology aims to solve practical problems.
• Sometimes, when students have questions, we tend to respond by asking them to simply memorize the facts or principles, especially if they find it hard to understand.
• Have you ever wondered if merely knowing the facts is enough to satisfy their curiosity?
• By focusing only on theories and principles, we may only provide factual knowledge, which can be unhelpful.
• This approach can overwhelm students, leading them to lose interest in Science (Larsen and Cindy, 2011).
• It is essential to create methods that give students a real experience with Science.
• You should allow students to feel, experience, explore, and analyze scientific concepts.
• Through this process, they will be able to form their own understanding and create their own body of knowledge.
• If you want to present Science as a body of knowledge, you need to design activities where students can discover concepts, principles, and theories by themselves.

Science as a process of inquiry

• Science is seen as a process of inquiry, which we will explore more in the next section of the Unit.
• When teaching and learning Science, you will go through several processes that allow your students to investigate important issues in their environment.
• It is essential to develop certain process skillssuch as:
  • Observation
  • Inference
  • Classification
  • Communication
  • Measurement
  • Prediction
• These skills will be discussed in detail in Unit 3.
• Process skills are crucial for both scientific investigations and daily life.
• Students should learn to establish causal relationships and differentiate them from mere associations.
• In a Science classroom, teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in investigative activities. This helps them understand the nature of scientific inquiry.
• Such practices will encourage students to think critically about the relationships between facts, opinions, processes, and events.
• Teachers are expected to motivate students to identify relationships and analyze related facts in a logical manner.

Science as a way of thinking 

• The third area is Science as a way of thinking.
• Renowned scientist Carl Sagan stated, “Science is more than just a collection of knowledge. It is a way of thinking.”
• It is important to develop scientific thinking in your students.
• Your effectiveness as a Science teacher will largely rely on how much scientific thinking and scientific attitude you encourage in your students.
• Earlier sections focused on viewing Science as both a body of knowledge and a process of inquiry, but these are closely connected to the third aspect: Science as a way of thinking.
• You can enhance scientific thinkingby helping students learn how to:
  • Explore information
  • Analyze data
  • Evaluate findings
  • Work scientifically
• A scientific way of thinking enables students to gather evidence that can be seen and measured, known as empirical evidence.
• This way of thinking encourages students to question why and how things happen as they do.
• Science as a way of thinkingincludes:
  • Scientific temper
  • Scientific inquiry
  • A sense of humanity
• It involves recognizing that scientific ideas are tentative and requires controlling emotions when interpreting evidence.
• The discussion shows that none of these areas can be separated; they are all integrated.

How Science Works?

 Science is not just about following a strict method every time. There are many discoveries and inventions that happened without a systematic approach. For example, the law of gravitation was inspired by an apple falling, not by a planned experiment. 

• Law of Gravitation: Isaac Newton came up with the idea of gravitation when he saw an apple fall while sitting under an apple tree. He wondered why the apple fell straight down to the ground. This was not part of a scientific method but a moment of curiosity. 
• Discovery of Penicillin: Alexander Fleming found penicillin accidentally when he returned from a holiday and noticed that a mould had grown in an open Petri dish in his lab. The mould had killed the bacteria around it, leading to the discovery of a powerful antibiotic. 
• Radioactivity: Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity by chance when a uranium-enriched crystal emitted rays that fogged a photographic plate, even without sunlight. His work was continued by Pierre and Marie Curie. 
• The Microwave: Percy Spencer discovered the heating effect of microwaves when a chocolate bar melted in his pocket while he was working on a magnetron. This led to the development of the microwave oven. 

 From these stories, learners can understand that scientific discoveries and inventions are not always a straight process. Sometimes, they come from observations or critical questions. However, testing and validating theories using the scientific method is important. As a teacher, it's essential to encourage students to explore and discover science in their surroundings through inquiry. 

Science as a Process of Inquiry

• Science is a way of finding out about things that we see around us and trying to explain them.
• When we talk about "scientific inquiry," we mean looking into different things in a careful way to understand them better.
• This involves asking questions, making guesses, doing experiments, and figuring out what the results mean.
• For example, if we notice that plants grow bigger when they get more sunlight, we might ask why that happens. Then, we could set up an experiment to see how different amounts of sunlight affect plant growth.
• By doing this, we are using scientific inquiry to learn more about how plants and sunlight work together.

Different Aspects of Scientific Inquiry:

Scientific inquiry involves several important aspects:

• Asking Questions: Scientists start by observing something interesting and asking questions about it. For example, why do some plants grow better in the sun?
• Making Hypotheses:. hypothesis is an educated guess about what might happen. Scientists make these guesses based on what they already know. For instance, they might guess that plants need sunlight to make food.
• Designing Experiments: Scientists plan experiments to test their hypotheses. This involves figuring out what they will do, what they will measure, and how they will keep everything fair.
• Collecting Data: During the experiment, scientists gather information and data. This could be measurements, observations, or recordings of what happens.
• Analyzing Data: After collecting data, scientists look at it carefully to see if it supports their hypothesis or not. They might use graphs or charts to help understand the information.
• Drawing Conclusions: Based on the analysis, scientists decide whether their hypothesis was correct. They draw conclusions about what their experiment shows.
• Sharing Findings: Scientists share their results with others, so everyone can learn from their work. This might be through reports, presentations, or articles.

Importance of Scientific Inquiry:

• Scientific inquiry is important because it helps us learn about the world in a systematic way.
• It encourages curiosity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
• By following this process, we can discover new things, understand how different parts of nature work together, and find solutions to problems.

Constructing explanations and ideas 

• The initial step for a learner in this process is to create explanations and ideas.
• In a Science class, the teacher, Mr. Moin, brought some materials: a water bottle, a glass, and a thick piece of paper.
• He poured water into the glass, placed the thick paper on top, then carefully turned the glass upside down and removed his hand.
• The learners were amazed when they saw that the paper stayed on the glass and the water didn’t spill out.
• Mr. Moin asked the students to think about what they observed.
• The students began to discuss their ideas, offering different explanations for what they saw:
  • Some suggested that there was glue on the paper.
  • Others thought it was stuck because of the water inside the glass.
  • Some whispered that there might be something else in the water bottle.
  • For a few, it seemed like a magic trick.
• What do these comments mean? As a Science teacher, how can you turn their comments into an interest in natural phenomena?
• These comments are part of how learners develop ideas and create explanations.
• Mr. Moin was actually demonstrating the concept of air and its pressure.
• While you might not consider their explanations to be "scientific," they are the starting point for scientific thinking.
• In science, explanations should be based on evidence, and observations should be supported by theories and experiences.
• Scientists establish relationships and causes of events through evidence, which can come from:
  • Conducting investigations
  • Observing demonstrations
  • Collecting samples
  • Describing objects, organisms, or events
• Although students' explanations may not be scientifically accurate, it's important to encourage them to form explanations based on their observations and prior knowledge.
• How can teachers do this? By asking questions or responding to their queries in a scientific manner.
• It’s crucial for teachers to master the art of questioning and to ask the right types of questions.
• In a Science classroom, teachers often do not accept vague ideas from students.
• Learners naturally want to ask questions, and teachers can also pose questions to promote scientific inquiry.
• There are two kinds of questions that can be asked in the classroom:
  • Existence Questions: These start with "why" and are answered by recalling facts that students already know.
  • Causal Questions: These begin with "how," "what if," "does," or "I wonder," and usually require scientific investigation to answer.
• In scientific inquiry, questions differ from standard questions. As students learn about scientific inquiry, they can create their own questions.
• Common types of questions in scientific inquiry include:
  • Testable Questions: These can be answered through evidence from observations or experiments, leading to hypotheses. Example: Can fish survive out of water?
  • Spontaneous Questions: These arise from learners' natural curiosity about an event or phenomenon. Example: Why are flowers not green?
  • Stimulative Questions: These are posed by the teacher to encourage thinking, observation, and reflection. Example: Why does a paper boat float while a piece of paper sinks?
  • Factual Questions: These are about scientific facts and help explain phenomena. Learners often ask these because they may not understand the scientific inquiry process yet.
• As a teacher, it's important to encourage students to ask deeper, more meaningful questions.
• When learners start asking a variety of questions, they will connect these questions to the scientific inquiry process and investigations.
• They should be given chances to look up information related to their questions and encouraged to find answers independently.
• Additionally, teachers should help transform factual questions into testable ones and create opportunities for learners to generate new questions.

Developing testable questions and hypotheses

• In scientific inquiry, teachers need to create testable questions.
• Testable questions can be answered through observations or experiments that provide evidence.
• It's important to help students understand the difference between testable questions and other types of questions.
• Factual questions posed by students should be rephrased into testable questions.
• A testable questionis defined by the following criteria according to BSCS (2005, p. 30):
  • The question focuses on objects, organisms, and events in the natural world.
  • The question relates to scientific concepts instead of personal opinions, feelings, or beliefs.
  • The question can be explored through experiments or observations.
  • The question helps gather evidence and use data to explain how the natural world functions.
• Can you apply these criteria to the questions we discussed earlier?
• Often, questions may relate to an activity but are not considered testable questions because they cannot be answered through an experiment alone.
• Some questions can be answered based on factual knowledge and the explanation of cause-and-effect relationships.
• Before answering, teachers should allow students to make predictions or suggest possible answers to their questions.
• Students might create some predictions or tentative answers based on their observations.
• Some of these answers may be testable, while others may not be; teachers should assist them in identifying which answers are testable.
• These tentative answers to testable questions are often called hypotheses.
• According to Heyer (2006, p.4), there are four key points to remember about hypotheses:
  • A hypothesis should align with existing observations and known information related to the question.
  • A hypothesis must be presented as a statement of the expected outcome, not as a question.
  • A hypothesis is created before the experiment takes place, not after.
  • A hypothesis should be specific and testable.
• As a teacher, you can create opportunities for students to develop testable questions and find probable answers based on their observations and prior knowledge.

Planning, conducting and observing simple investigations

• To test your ideas, encourage students to plan, conduct, and observe some investigations or simple experiments.
• Each investigation should be based on solid planning regarding the roles of teachers and students and how they will participate.
• When planning a simple scientific investigation, consider these questions:
  • What is the goal of the investigation?
  • How does it connect with a scientific concept or theory?
  • What materials do you need for the investigation?
  • Where will the investigation take place, such as inside the classroom or outside?
  • How will the students be involved?
  • What will the students' roles be?
  • What precautions should be taken?
• After planning, the next step is to carry out the activity by executing your plan.
• To make sure students actively participate in the investigation, teachers should guide them through the process.
• The activities set by the teacher should promote active and enthusiastic involvementfrom students, including:
  • Observing
  • Establishing cause and effect relationships
  • Collecting information
  • Organizing data in a logical sequence
• The teacher's role should be to observe carefully with minimal interference in the investigation.
• It is important for the teacher to connect classroom learning with the real world and support students in making connections with their surroundings.
• Teachers can also conduct simple experiments in the classroom. Here are a couple of examples: 
  • Use two test tubes labeled A and B. In test tube A, place some boiled rice, and in B, add boiled rice that has been chewed for 3-5 minutes. Add 3-4 ml of water to both. Then, add 2-3 drops of iodine solution to each. Ask the students to notice the changes, and explain how saliva helps change starch into sugar. 
  • Take an iron rod, apply wax to one end, and attach some nails with the wax. Heat one end of the rod and ask the students to observe the changes. You can teach them about the flow of heat. 
•  These are just a few ideas; you can create many more activities based on the science textbook content.  The aim of this discussion is to help you make teaching and learning more inquiry-based and to encourage students to take an active role in building their own scientific knowledge.

Constructing explanations and communicating results

• After finishing the investigation, encourage learners to discuss the conclusions they reached and explain their reasoning. You can tell them that the conclusion is the final step of the entire inquiry process.
• The conclusion should cover all parts:
  • Observations that raised questions.
  • The investigation that led to the hypothesis.
  • The experiment and data that helped decide whether the hypothesis was accepted or rejected.
• The conclusion should also include any other questions that popped up in learners' minds during the experiment and any experiences they had while conducting it.
• Once conclusions are drawn, learners should share and communicate the results they obtained. Communicating results is a crucial part of scientific inquiry.
• It is not necessary for learners to present their results in the same way scientists do, but they should learn to report their findings in an organized manner based on the earlier objectives.
• Teachers can assist learners in presenting their inquiry results in a way that others can easily understand.
• In science, learners should be able to solve everyday problems using a scientific approach. They need to apply the process of scientific inquiry to analyze and solve issues.
• As a teacher, create situations that encourage learners to:
  • Analyze problems using a scientific approach.
  • Formulate testable questions and hypotheses.
  • Organize scientific investigations.
  • Draw conclusions and report them as solutions to the problems.
• Remember that scientific inquiry helps us find possible solutions to problems, and we must decide if the solutions are correct based on evidence, observations, and experiments.
• The question is: how can we motivate learners towards this?
• We can spark interest by presenting them with: 
  • Problems from their daily lives. 
  • Incidents from their surroundings. 
  • News clips and newspaper reports. 
  • Examples of natural disasters. 
  • Connections between scientific concepts in textbooks and their personal experiences. 
• Here are some examples where scientific concepts can be explained through everyday experiences.

Science in Society 

Role of Science Teachers

•  As a teacher of Science, your role is to help students understand how Science is related to society. 
•  Science did not develop in isolation; it has been influenced by the needs and demands of society. 
•  Throughout history, Science has been aimed at helping society understand and explain various natural phenomena. 

Examples from Indian Literature

•  In ancient Indian texts like the Rigveda, there are references to the Earth's rotation around the Sun, which takes 12 months. 
•  The Kalpsutra contains verses that explain the relationships of squares, triangles, and circles, long before the time of the Greek mathematician Pythagoras. 
•  Ancient texts on Ayurveda and surgery describe how these practices were used to keep society healthy. 

Impact of Modern Scientific Works

•  Books like "A Brief History of Time" by Stephen Hawking and "Origin of Species" by Charles Darwin have had a profound impact on our understanding of Science and its relationship with society. 

Science as a Social Enterprise

•  Science is fundamentally a social activity. Innovations and discoveries in Science have changed the entire social structure. 
•  For example, consider the transformation brought about by the invention of the mobile phone. 
•  Before the mobile phone, society functioned differently, but the advent of this technology has revolutionized social interactions and communication. 
•  Similarly, the shift from relying on books and newspapers for information to the current era of internet and social media as primary sources of information has drastically altered how society consumes and shares knowledge. 

Contributions of Science to Society

•  The field of medical Science has seen continuous advancements, with new vaccines, medicines, surgical equipment, and diagnostic test kits being developed regularly to improve public health. 
•  Recent progress in Space and Atomic research has also impacted global social relationships, influencing how countries interact and collaborate on various issues. 

Conclusion

•  There are countless examples of how Science affects every aspect of social and personal life through its innovations and discoveries. 

Value Development through Science

Value development is a crucial responsibility that falls on all teachers. There are both universal values applicable across all disciplines and discipline-specific values within the 28 Understanding Science disciplines. 

• Integrated Approach: Values should not be taught as separate content but should be integrated into the process and activities of various subjects. 
• Teacher's Role: As a teacher at the secondary level, your role is to facilitate activities where learners can create knowledge and understand scientific phenomena while also inculcating values. 
• Values to Promote:. good Science curriculum should promote values such as: 
• Honesty 
• Co-operation 
• Objectivity 
• Freedom from fear and prejudice 
• Concern for life and environmental preservation 

Let's Summarize

•  This unit has provided a brief overview of the meaning and nature of Science. It is emphasized that as a Science teacher, you should assist learners in understanding Science as a process of inquiry. 
•  It is important to resolve various myths about the nature of Science so that learners can grasp its true essence. Science is not just a body of knowledge or a process of inquiry; it is also a way of thinking. 
•  The unit explains with examples that Science does not operate solely through the scientific method but develops through inquiry processes. Science has evolved to help society explain various natural phenomena, and through inventions and discoveries, it has transformed the entire social structure. 
•  The unit suggests that certain values need to be developed alongside the teaching-learning process of Science. As a Science teacher, you should integrate value development with content transaction in Science.