O P Gauba Summary: Nature and Significance of Political Theory | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

Civic Philosophy

Society is made up of various institutions such as family, school, religious organisations, and the political system. Each of these institutions serves a specific purpose and involves some level of organisation and authority.

Authority refers to a relationship where one party gives commands that are considered reasonable, and the other party obeys. Typically, mild protests against this authority are tolerated.

Political theory is the study of the basic questions that arise in politics. It focuses on the nature of political life, the role of different institutions in society, and how authority is exercised and challenged.

Political theory explores the principles and values that underpin political systems, examining concepts such as justice, equality, and the common good. It also considers the impact of political decisions on individuals and communities, aiming to understand the ethical implications of various political practices.

By analysing these fundamental aspects, political theory aims to provide a deeper understanding of the dynamics of power, governance, and social organisation within society.

Nature of Political Theory

What is Political?

A polity is an organisation established to govern the entire community, signifying a system where rules are created and decisions are made for everyone, with authority exercised over each member. The term 'political' pertains to what is 'public,' in contrast to private matters or those limited to a few individuals. Sheldon S. Wolin, in his book Politics and Vision (1960), describes the core of the 'political' as focusing on what is 'common' to the entire community. Functions such as national defence, internal order, justice, and economic regulation are considered key responsibilities of political institutions because they benefit all members of the community.

Aristotle's View on Polity

Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, stressed the significance of the state by referring to humans as 'political animals.' He believed that living in a state is a natural condition for people, and those who exist outside a state or do not require one are either beasts or angels.

Origin of Terms

The terms 'polity,' 'politics,' and 'political' originate from the Greek word 'polis,' which denoted ancient Greek city-states. These city-states were small communities separated by geographical barriers like forests, mountains, and seas. Each city-state cultivated a close-knit social life and culture, with institutions and activities aimed at securing a 'good life' for the community, collectively referred to as 'polities.'

Modern Understanding of Politics

In modern society, the scope of politics is not as all-encompassing as it was in ancient times. Today, there is a clear distinction between public and private spheres of life. The term 'politics' primarily pertains to activities and institutions in the public sphere but can also influence private spheres. For example:

• Decisions made by the cabinet and parliament
• Election campaigns
• Activities of political parties

However, aspects such as faith, education, art, and culture do not fall under politics unless their regulation is necessary for maintaining public order and safety.

Scope of Political Theory

Political Theory systematically studies political phenomena, including empirical, logical, and evaluative statements. While political science relies on empirical and logical statements, political theory also considers value judgments. The scope of political theory encompasses both political science and political philosophy, highlighting the importance of understanding values for sound public policy.

Political Theory: Nature and Scope

Political theory involves the study of political phenomena in a systematic manner, focusing on three types of statements: empirical, logical, and evaluative.

• Empirical statements are based on observation, Logical statements are derived from reasoning, and Evaluative statements involve value judgments.

Political science primarily deals with empirical and logical statements as they can be verified, while evaluative statements are often subjective and vary from person to person. Political theory goes beyond scientific knowledge to include the determination of values, which are essential for sound public policy. Values are not merely individual preferences; they have a logical structure and can be debated and agreed upon through dialogue. Political theory encompasses both political science and political philosophy, as both are necessary for understanding and guiding political life.

Importance of Values in Political Theory

Values are crucial in shaping public policy and require careful consideration by responsible entities. Political theory involves understanding and debating values to arrive at universal principles for judging their validity. This approach ensures that political decisions are based on sound reasoning and ethical considerations.

Views of Scholars on Political Theory

• Max Weber and the Vienna Circle: Emphasised that reliable knowledge comes from empirical methods and that questions of values are beyond scientific knowledge.
• George Catlin : Divided political theory into political science and political philosophy. Political science deals with facts and laws governing political behaviour, while political philosophy focuses on values and the good society. He argued for the fusion of sociology and political science to understand control processes in society.
• Andrew Hacker : Suggested that political scientists play a dual role as both scientists and philosophers. He argued that political science describes and explains political behaviour, while political philosophy prescribes goals and right conduct in political life. Adequate knowledge of political science is essential for sound political philosophy, as the latter must be informed by the realities of political life.

Nature of Political Science

Political science follows a scientific method involving several steps:

• Observation : Relying on sensory experience and avoiding supernatural or metaphysical explanations.
• Generalization : Establishing relationships and correlations between factors through inductive or deductive methods. Generalizations should be expressed as general rules, preferably in quantitative terms, and be verifiable through experimentation.
• Explanation : Providing reasons for general rules to avoid coincidental correlations and make events meaningful.
• Prediction and Prescription : Forecasting outcomes based on known facts and general rules, and suggesting measures to achieve objectives like efficiency, stability, and satisfaction.

Behavioral and Post-Behavioral Approaches

• Behavioral Approach : Focuses on studying the actual behaviour of individuals in political situations, breaking down formal political institutions into 'systems' and 'processes' to examine the behaviour of political actors.
• Post-Behavioral Approach : Emphasises aligning the goals of political science with human values and ends, reviving concern with 'values' while maintaining the scientific method for studying 'facts'. Calls for applying political science to address and overcome crises in various areas of human life.

Nature of Political Philosophy

Political philosophy is often viewed as addressing what people should do in politics, while political science focuses on actual behaviour. However, this perspective overlooks the critical role of political philosophy in evaluating beliefs and concepts. Political philosophy is primarily concerned with critiquing existing beliefs and clarifying social concepts like justice. Even when philosophers describe ideal societies, their main aim is to critique the present and clarify social concepts. Unlike science, which seeks explanation, philosophy aims to justify beliefs by providing rational grounds for acceptance or rejection.

Clarification of Concepts

Political philosophy involves clarifying vague concepts such as authority, social class, justice, liberty, and democracy through analysis, synthesis, and improvement. This includes defining concept elements, showing logical relationships, and recommending clearer definitions or uses of concepts. Political philosophy is essential for clarifying concepts used in social and political analysis, as knowledge development in all fields relies on clarifying concepts, though it is particularly challenging in political theory.

Common Terms in Political Discourse

Political discourse often employs common terms, but their technical meanings need clarification. Terms like authority, social class, liberty, equality, justice, and democracy may have varying meanings in different political contexts.

Importance of Precise Meanings

Political philosophy seeks to establish precise meanings for these terms that are acceptable to diverse ideological perspectives. Agreeing on term meanings does not imply accepting each other's viewpoints; rather, it facilitates dialogue. For instance, if a liberal and a socialist concur on the meanings of "freedom" or "equality," they are more likely to comprehend each other's perspectives.

Misuse of Terms

Without precise meanings, terms can be misused to obscure weak arguments. Self-serving leaders and demagogues may exploit these terms to mislead people through emotional appeals, while autocrats may use them to legitimise oppressive regimes.

Building Arguments

A widely accepted term definition enables thinkers to build arguments on a solid foundation. Just as innovative mechanics do not need to reinvent the wheel for every new machine, new thinkers need not create new terminology to present their ideas.

Encouragement to Mutual Respect and Toleration

The political theory tradition fosters respectful debate among supporters of different perspectives. Political philosophers throughout history have focused on common issues and provided new insights, contributing to ongoing conversations among theorists. While major debates may remain unresolved, the criticisms theorists make of each other are always vivid and enlightening. Political theory encourages understanding differing viewpoints, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and resolving differences peacefully.

Political theory broadly encompasses political science and political philosophy.

Together, these branches perform three recognised functions of political theory: description, criticism, and reconstruction. Political science relies on empirical methods, focusing on knowledge derived from practical experience, which is considered most reliable. Therefore, it specialises in description. On the other hand, political philosophy, concerned with value judgments, specialises in criticism and reconstruction. Advocates of positivism, neo-positivism, and behaviouralism argue for confining political theory to political science. They contend that evaluative statements are based on individual or group preferences, which vary from person to person and group to group. There is no reliable method for determining right or wrong, good or bad, and questions of value judgment should be excluded from political theory. However, with the advent of post-behaviouralism and the revival of political philosophy, there has been a renewed emphasis on values in political theory. Value judgments are now seen as essential guides to social policy. Indifference to value judgments would leave society in the dark. Emerging concerns such as environmentalism, feminism, human rights, and social justice for marginalised groups call for exploring new horizons of value judgment. David Held, in his editorial introduction to Political Theory Today, emphasises the demanding tasks of political theory. Without systematic pursuit of these tasks, there is a risk of politics being left to the ignorant, self-interested, or those with a mere will to power. Therefore, all functions of political theory are now considered crucial and urgent, especially in a world where problems are increasingly recognised as global issues affecting humanity as a whole. Political theory represents an intellectual effort to systematically understand the goals and methods of politics, with a tradition spanning over two and a half millennia.

However, in the mid-twentieth century, proponents of new political science began questioning the relevance of traditional political theory.

David Easton, an American political scientist, criticised traditional political theory as speculative and lacking acute observation of political reality. He argued for the scientific foundation of politics and the necessity of moving away from the study of classics and political ideas. Easton believed that traditional political theory thrived during periods of social and political upheaval and lacked relevance in contemporary society. He also noted the absence of outstanding political philosophers after figures like Marx and Mill, questioning the reliance on century-old ideas. Easton highlighted the need for political scientists to develop research tools to understand phenomena like fascism and communism, emphasising their neglect during the Second World War when other disciplines played active roles in decision-making.

Easton’s Contribution

Easton proposed the development of a behavioural political science that would align more closely with other social sciences, emphasising its role in the decision-making process. He argued that traditional political theory focused on establishing ideal values for society, but modern political science should not concern itself with this. Instead, Easton believed that contemporary society would naturally develop its own value system based on its experiences and insights. Political scientists, according to him, should concentrate on creating causal theories to explain political behaviour.

Causal Theory

Causal theory explores the relationship between cause and effect. It investigates what causes certain events to occur and predicts what will happen if specific causes are present. However, after about fifteen years, Easton revised his perspective. In his presidential address to the American Political Science Association in 1969, he introduced the idea of a 'post-behavioural' revolution. Easton aimed to shift political science from being a 'pure science' to an 'applied science.' He argued that scientific inquiry should help society address its current crises, which also meant re-engaging with values that the earlier behavioural approach had tried to exclude.

Alfred Cobban’s Critique

In 1953, Alfred Cobban published a paper titled 'The Decline of Political Theory' in Political Science Quarterly, where he argued that political theory had lost its significance in both capitalist and communist systems. He noted that capitalist systems were driven by the idea of 'libertarian democracy', but lacked a political theorist of democracy, relying instead on bureaucracy and a strong military. In communist systems, political theory took a back seat due to the dominance of a new party organisation and a small oligarchy. Cobban criticised Hegel and Marx for their narrow focus—Hegel on the 'territorial state' and Marx on the 'proletariat class'—arguing that contemporary politics could not be understood through such limited frameworks. He believed that political science needed to develop criteria of judgment that would restore its relevance, addressing questions beyond the scope of social science methodologies.

Seymour Martin Lipset’s Perspective

In his book Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (1960), Seymour Martin Lipset argued that the values of contemporary society had already been established, particularly in the United States, where the search for the 'good society' had concluded. He suggested that American democracy was the closest approximation to the good society in operation, questioning the ongoing relevance of political theory at that time.

Leo Strauss’s Critique

Leo Strauss, in his writings, including 'What is Political Philosophy?' and 'An Epilogue' to Essays on the Scientific Study of Politics, argued that the behavioural approach to political science, by adopting a positivist stance, reflected the decline of political theory. He believed that this new science of politics had ignored normative issues, which are essential for understanding political life.

Understanding Polity and Political Theory

Community Governance

Polity refers to an organization set up to manage an entire community. In a polity, rules are established and decisions are made for everyone in the community, with authority over all members. The term "political" relates to what is public, not private or limited to a few individuals. Sheldon S. Wolin, in his book "Politics and Vision" (1960), explains the core idea of the political.

Key Figures in Political Theory

• Max Weber: A prominent social theorist, Weber's work is often seen as distinct from the logical positivist views of the Vienna Circle.
• George Catlin: He differentiated political theory into political science and political philosophy. Political science deals with facts and laws governing political behaviour, while political philosophy focuses on values and the idea of a good society. Catlin believed in merging sociology with political science to understand societal control processes better.
• Andrew Hacker: Hacker suggested that political scientists should operate as both scientists and philosophers. He emphasized that political science describes and explains political behaviour, whereas political philosophy sets goals and standards for political conduct. A solid understanding of political science is crucial for developing a sound political philosophy, as the latter must reflect the realities of political life.

Scientific Method in Political Science

Political science employs a scientific method comprising several steps:

• Observation: This step involves relying on what can be perceived through the senses, avoiding explanations that delve into the supernatural or metaphysical, as these exceed our sensory experience.
• Generalization: Based on observed patterns, this step establishes relationships and correlations between different factors or variables. Generalization can occur through:
  • Inductive Method: Moving from specific observations to a general rule by identifying commonalities in particular cases.
  • Deductive Method: Starting with a general rule and verifying it through specific observations. Generalizations should ideally be expressed as general rules in quantitative terms and be subject to verification through experimentation.
• Explanation: This involves providing reasons for the general rule. Without such reasoning, observed correlations may be mere coincidences. Explanation is crucial for making specific events, situations, or trends meaningful.
• Prediction and Prescription: This step involves forecasting potential outcomes based on known facts and general rules, and suggesting measures to achieve objectives such as increased efficiency, stability, and satisfaction.

Behavioral and Post-Behavioral Approaches

Political Insights

Behavioral Approach: The Behavioral Approach in political science focuses on studying the actual actions and behaviors of people in political situations. Instead of merely describing the features and legal status of political institutions, this approach aims to understand how political actors behave. To analyze behavior, the Behavioral Approach breaks down formal political institutions into "systems" and "processes," emphasizing that behavior is the only aspect suitable for scientific study.

Post-Behavioral Approach: The Post-Behavioral Approach, on the other hand, seeks to connect the objectives of political science with human values and outcomes. While still using scientific methods to study facts, Post-Behavioralism reintroduces the focus on values. This approach encourages the use of political science to address and solve current crises affecting various aspects of human life.

Political Philosophy

Political philosophy is concerned with understanding concepts of right and wrong, as well as good and evil, in the context of social life. When we observe problems in society and politics, we strive to find rational justifications to criticize them and imagine ways to create a better society. Throughout history, numerous political philosophers, including Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, Mill, and Macpherson, have identified societal issues and proposed their ideas for social improvement.

• However, it is important to note that none of these suggestions represent definitive solutions.
• Instead, they offer valuable insights into potential social problems and their possible remedies.

Insights from Political Theory

Philosophical Discourse

• Plato revealed how self-serving and crafty politicians function within a democracy.
• Machiavelli depicted the characteristics of selfish and avaricious individuals.
• Marx examined the struggles between those who own property and those who do not.

Tradition of Political Theory

• The tradition of political theory encourages respectful discussions among advocates of various viewpoints.
• Political thinkers, from ancient times to the modern era, have addressed shared challenges and offered fresh perspectives.
• As Andrew Hacker wisely pointed out, political theory is a continuous dialogue among theorists.
• Although the most significant disagreements may remain unresolved, the critiques that authors provide of one another are always vivid and enlightening.
• Politics is the most democratic of sciences; hence, all who engage in political theory have the duty to make final assessments about political reality and the good life.
• Participating in the tradition of political philosophers helps us appreciate each other’s perspectives.
• It enables us to recognize the strengths and weaknesses of our ideas, persuading others and being persuaded when the truth is uncovered.
• Essentially, political theory promotes mutual respect and tolerance, encouraging us to settle our differences amicably.

Functions of Political Theory

• Political theory broadly includes political science and political philosophy.
• These fields together carry out three recognized functions of political theory: description, criticism, and reconstruction.
• Political science relies on empirical methods, emphasizing knowledge gained from practical experience, which is deemed most reliable.
• Consequently, it focuses on description.
• In contrast, political philosophy, which deals with value judgments, specializes in criticism and reconstruction.
• Proponents of positivism, neo-positivism, and behavioralism argue for limiting political theory to political science.
• They assert that evaluative statements are based on individual or group preferences, which vary among individuals and groups.
• The determination of right and wrong can be contentious and varies across different philosophical traditions; thus, value judgments should be excluded from political theory.
• However, with the rise of post-behavioralism and the resurgence of political philosophy, there is a renewed focus on values in political theory.
• Value judgments are now regarded as essential guides to social policy.
• Ignoring value judgments would leave society in confusion.
• Emerging issues such as environmentalism, feminism, human rights, and social justice for marginalized groups necessitate the exploration of new realms of value judgment.
• David Held, in his editorial introduction to "Political Theory Today," underscores the rigorous challenges faced by political theory.
• Without a systematic pursuit of these tasks, there is a danger of politics being left to the uninformed, self-serving, or those with mere will to power.
• Hence, all functions of political theory are now deemed crucial and urgent, especially in a world where problems are increasingly recognized as global issues affecting humanity as a whole.

Criticism of Traditional Political Theory

• Political theory embodies an intellectual endeavour to systematically comprehend the objectives and methodologies of politics, with a tradition spanning over 2500 years.
• Nevertheless, during the mid-twentieth century, advocates of new political science began to challenge the relevance of traditional political theory.
• David Easton, an American political scientist, critiqued traditional political theory as speculative and lacking sharp observation of political reality.
• He advocated for the scientific grounding of politics and the necessity of moving beyond the study of classics and political ideas.
• Easton posited that traditional political theory flourished during times of social and political turmoil and lacked relevance in modern society.
• He also observed the dearth of prominent political philosophers following figures like Marx and Mill, questioning the reliance on century-old concepts.
• Easton emphasized the need for political scientists to develop research tools to comprehend phenomena such as fascism and communism, highlighting their neglect during the Second World War when other disciplines played active roles in decision-making.