Old NCERT Summary (RS Sharma): The Stone Age | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The Old Stone Age

1. Timeline of Human Occupation in India
   • Approximately from 500,000 B.C. to 8000 B.C.
   • Palaeolithic tools were found in various regions.
2. Palaeolithic Tools and Lifestyle:
   • Tools made of rough stones used for hunting and cutting.
   • Lack of knowledge in cultivation and house building.
   • Dependency on hunting and food gathering.
3. Discoveries and Domestication:
   • Palaeolithic tools dating back to 100,000 B.C. in the Chotanagpur plateau.
   • Tools from 25,000 B.C. to 10,000 B.C. were found in the Kurnool district.
   • Animal remains in the Mirzapur district suggest domestication around 25,000 B.C.
4. Geological Periods:
   • Palaeolithic culture developed during the Pleistocene period or Ice Age.
   • The Holocene or recent period began around 10,000 years ago.
5. Ice Age Impact:
   • Ice sheets covered higher altitudes during the Pleistocene period.
   • Tropical regions, except mountains, were free from ice and experienced high rainfall.
6. Earliest Human Occupation: First human occupation in India was during the Middle Pleistocene, around 500,000 years ago.

Phases in the Palaeolithic Age

The Old Stone Age or the Palaeolithic Age in India is categorized into three phases based on the nature of stone tools and climate changes. These phases are Early or Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, and Upper Palaeolithic.

1. Early or Lower Palaeolithic:
   • Dominates the greater part of the Ice Age.
   • Characterized by the use of hand axes and cleavers.
   • Axes similar to those in Western Asia, Europe, and Africa.
   • Sites found in the Soan River valley in Punjab (now in Pakistan) and Belan valley in Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh.
   • Presence of caves and rock shelters in Belan Valley, possibly used as seasonal camps.
   • Hand-axes are found in deposits from the second Himalayan glaciation.
   • The climate becomes less humid during this period.
2. Middle Palaeolithic:
   • Based on flakes with regional variations.
   • Principal tools include scrapers, borers, and blade-like tools.
   • Sites are found in the Soan Valley, along the river Narmada, and south of the Tungabhadra River.
   • Crude pebble industry observed in strata contemporary with the third Himalayan glaciation.
3. Upper Palaeolithic:
   • Associated with a less humid climate and the last phase of the Ice Age.
   • Characterized by the appearance of new flint industries and modern-type humans.
   • Tools include blades and burins.
   • Sites found in Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bhopal, and Chotanagpur plateau.
   • Caves and rock shelters used by humans were discovered at Bhimbetka, south of Bhopal.
   • Upper Palaeolithic assemblage found in Gujarat dunes, characterized by massive flakes, blades, burins, and scrapers.
4. Origin of the Palaeolithic Age:
   • Difficult to pinpoint the exact beginnings.
   • Human remains associated with stone tools globally date back to around 3.5 million years.
   • Modern humans (Homo sapiens) likely first appeared in the Upper Palaeolithic Age through several stages.
5. Distribution of Palaeolithic Sites: Sites are found in almost all parts of the country except the alluvial plains of the Indus and the Ganga.

The Late Stone Age

The Upper Palaeolithic Age concluded with the end of the Ice Age around 8000 B.C., leading to a warm and dry climate. These climatic changes impacted fauna and flora, enabling human migration to new areas. Since then, major climatic conditions have remained relatively stable. The transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic Age, known as the Mesolithic Age or Late Stone Age, began around 8000 B.C. in India and continued until about 4000 B.C.

1. End of Upper Palaeolithic Age:
   • Concluded with the end of the Ice Age around 8000 B.C.
   • Transition to a warm and dry climate.
2. Mesolithic Age (Late Stone Age):
   • Started approximately around 8000 B.C. in India.
   • Transitional phase between Palaeolithic and Neolithic Ages.
   • Continued until about 4000 B.C.
3. Characteristics of the Late Stone Age:
   • Characterized by microliths as the primary tools.
   • Microliths are found in good numbers in Chotanagpur, central India, and south of the river Krishna.
4. Geographical Distribution: Late Stone Age sites found in Chotanagpur, central India, and south of the river Krishna.
5. Chronology of Late Stone Age:
   • Limited scientifically dated finds from the Late Stone Age.
   • A clear indication that these findings preceded the Neolithic Age.
6. Unique Sequence in Vindhya's Belan Valley: On the northern spurs of the Vindhyas in the Belan Valley, a sequential discovery of all three phases of the Palaeolithic followed by Mesolithic and then Neolithic have been found.

The New Stone Age

Although in the global context, the New Stone Age commenced much earlier around 7000 B.C., neolithic settlements in the Indian subcontinent do not date back further than 6000 B.C., with some settlements in South and East India as late as 1000 B.C.

1. Neolithic Tools and Implements:
   • Neolithic settlements began around 6000 B.C. in the Indian subcontinent.
   • People used polished stone tools, particularly stone axes, found extensively throughout the region.
   • Stone axes were versatile tools, leading to the emergence of the ax-wielding hero Parasurama in ancient legends.
2. Three Neolithic Settlement Areas:
   • Northern Region (Kashmir):
     • Burzahom in the Kashmir Valley, around 20 km from Srinagar.
     • Neolithic people lived on a plateau, possibly engaged in hunting and fishing.
     • Use of polished stone tools and notable bone implements.
     • Coarse grey pottery and unique practice of burying domestic dogs with their masters.
     • Earliest date for Burzahom is about 2400 B.C.
   • Southern Region (South of Godavari River):
     • Settled on granite hills or plateaus near river banks in South India.
     • Used stone axes and stone blades.
     • Evidence of firebaked earthen figurines suggests ownership of cattle and agriculture.
   • Assam and Garo Hills (Northeastern Frontier):
     • Neolithic tools found in the hills of Assam and Garo Hills in Meghalaya.
     • No precise dating available.
3. Neolithic Sites and Settlements:
   • Neolithic settlements also found in the northern spurs of the Vindhyas in Mirzapur and Allahabad districts of Uttar Pradesh, Baluchistan, and Orissa hill areas.
   • Some excavated neolithic sites include Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, T. Narsipur, and Takkalakota in Karnataka, Paiyampalh in Tamil Nadu, Piklihal and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.
   • Neolithic phase estimated to cover the period from about 2500 B.C. to 1000 B.C.
4. Neolithic Lifestyle Transition:
   • Initial neolithic settlers were cattle herders, domesticating cattle, sheep, and goats.
   • Seasonal camps with cow pens made with posts and stakes.
   • Later neolithic settlers became agriculturists, living in circular or rectangular houses made of mud and reed.
   • Introduction of hand-made pottery, followed by the use of footwheels to shape pots.
5. Progress in Technology:
   • Between 9000 B.C. and 3000 B.C., remarkable technological progress occurred in Western Asia, involving cultivation, weaving, house building, and domestication of animals.
   • In the Indian subcontinent, the Neolithic Age began around the sixth millennium B.C., witnessing the cultivation of crops like rice, wheat, and barley.
6. Cultural Progress Towards Civilization:
   • Neolithic Age marked the cultivation of crucial crops and the emergence of villages around the sixth millennium B.C.
   • People were on the verge of transitioning towards civilization.
7. Limitations of the Stone Age:
   • People in the Stone Age, relying on stone tools and weapons, faced limitations.
   • Settlements were confined to hilly river valleys, and production was limited to subsistence needs.