Old NCERT Textbook (RS Sharma): The Geographical Setting | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

 Page 1


 CHAPTER 3 
 The Geographical Setting 
 The history of India cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. The 
 Indian subcontinent is as large in area as Europe without Russia. Its total area is 4,202,500 
 square kilometres. The subcontinent is divided into three countries—India, Pakistan, and 
 Bangladesh. India has 650,000,000 people, Pakistan 50,000,000, and Bangladesh 
 75,000,000. India comprises twenty-two States and nine Union Territories. Some of the 
 States are larger than many European countries. For instance, Bihar is as large in area as 
 England, and Madhya Pradesh is larger than several European countries. 
 The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit, mostly situated in the tropical 
 zone. It is bounded by the Himalayas on the north and seas on the other three sides. The 
 Himalayas protect the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through 
 Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm throughout the year. Since 
 the cold is not so severe in the plains, people do not need heavy clothing and can live in the 
 open for longer periods. Secondly, the Himalayas are high enough to shield the country 
 against invasions from the north. This was especially true in pre-industrial times when 
 communications were very difficult. However, on the north-west, the Sulaiman mountain 
 ranges, which are in southward continuation with the Himalayas, could be crossed through 
 the Khyber and Gomal passes. The Sulaiman ranges are joined southward in Baluchistan by 
 the Kirthar ranges which could be crossed through the Bolan pass. Through these passes, 
 two-way traffic between India and Central Asia has been going on from prehistoric times. 
 Various peoples from Iran, Afghanistan, and Soviet Central Asia came to India as invaders 
 and immigrants and vice versa. Even the Hindukush, the westward extension of the 
 Himalayan system, did not form an insuperable barrier between the Indus system and the 
 Oxus system. The passes facilitated trade and cultural contacts between India on the one 
 hand and Central Asia and West Asia on the other. 
 Nestled in the Himalayas are the valleys of Kashmir and Nepal. Surrounded on all sides by 
 high mountains, the valley of Kashmir developed its own way of life. But it could be reached 
 through several passes. Its winter compelled some of its people to go to the plains, and its 
 summer attracted the shepherds of the plains. Economic and cultural interaction between 
 the plains and the valley was continuous. The Pamir plateau did not prevent it from 
 becoming a transmitting centre of Buddhism for the adjacent areas of Central Asia. The 
 valley of Nepal, smaller in size, is accessible to the people of the Gangetic plains through a 
 number of passes. Like Kashmir, it also became a centre for cultivation of Sanskrit. Both the 
 valleys became the repositories of the largest number of Sanskrit manuscripts. 
Page 2


 CHAPTER 3 
 The Geographical Setting 
 The history of India cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. The 
 Indian subcontinent is as large in area as Europe without Russia. Its total area is 4,202,500 
 square kilometres. The subcontinent is divided into three countries—India, Pakistan, and 
 Bangladesh. India has 650,000,000 people, Pakistan 50,000,000, and Bangladesh 
 75,000,000. India comprises twenty-two States and nine Union Territories. Some of the 
 States are larger than many European countries. For instance, Bihar is as large in area as 
 England, and Madhya Pradesh is larger than several European countries. 
 The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit, mostly situated in the tropical 
 zone. It is bounded by the Himalayas on the north and seas on the other three sides. The 
 Himalayas protect the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through 
 Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm throughout the year. Since 
 the cold is not so severe in the plains, people do not need heavy clothing and can live in the 
 open for longer periods. Secondly, the Himalayas are high enough to shield the country 
 against invasions from the north. This was especially true in pre-industrial times when 
 communications were very difficult. However, on the north-west, the Sulaiman mountain 
 ranges, which are in southward continuation with the Himalayas, could be crossed through 
 the Khyber and Gomal passes. The Sulaiman ranges are joined southward in Baluchistan by 
 the Kirthar ranges which could be crossed through the Bolan pass. Through these passes, 
 two-way traffic between India and Central Asia has been going on from prehistoric times. 
 Various peoples from Iran, Afghanistan, and Soviet Central Asia came to India as invaders 
 and immigrants and vice versa. Even the Hindukush, the westward extension of the 
 Himalayan system, did not form an insuperable barrier between the Indus system and the 
 Oxus system. The passes facilitated trade and cultural contacts between India on the one 
 hand and Central Asia and West Asia on the other. 
 Nestled in the Himalayas are the valleys of Kashmir and Nepal. Surrounded on all sides by 
 high mountains, the valley of Kashmir developed its own way of life. But it could be reached 
 through several passes. Its winter compelled some of its people to go to the plains, and its 
 summer attracted the shepherds of the plains. Economic and cultural interaction between 
 the plains and the valley was continuous. The Pamir plateau did not prevent it from 
 becoming a transmitting centre of Buddhism for the adjacent areas of Central Asia. The 
 valley of Nepal, smaller in size, is accessible to the people of the Gangetic plains through a 
 number of passes. Like Kashmir, it also became a centre for cultivation of Sanskrit. Both the 
 valleys became the repositories of the largest number of Sanskrit manuscripts. 
 The foothills of the Himalayas lent themselves to easier clearance than the jungles on the 
 alluvial soil of the plains. It was easy to cross rivers in these areas because of their smaller 
 width, and hence the earliest routes skirted along the foothills of the Himalayas from the 
 west to the east and vice versa. Naturally, the earliest agricultural settlements and states 
 were founded in the foothills in the sixth century B.C., and trade routes followed the terai 
 route. 
Page 3


 CHAPTER 3 
 The Geographical Setting 
 The history of India cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. The 
 Indian subcontinent is as large in area as Europe without Russia. Its total area is 4,202,500 
 square kilometres. The subcontinent is divided into three countries—India, Pakistan, and 
 Bangladesh. India has 650,000,000 people, Pakistan 50,000,000, and Bangladesh 
 75,000,000. India comprises twenty-two States and nine Union Territories. Some of the 
 States are larger than many European countries. For instance, Bihar is as large in area as 
 England, and Madhya Pradesh is larger than several European countries. 
 The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit, mostly situated in the tropical 
 zone. It is bounded by the Himalayas on the north and seas on the other three sides. The 
 Himalayas protect the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through 
 Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm throughout the year. Since 
 the cold is not so severe in the plains, people do not need heavy clothing and can live in the 
 open for longer periods. Secondly, the Himalayas are high enough to shield the country 
 against invasions from the north. This was especially true in pre-industrial times when 
 communications were very difficult. However, on the north-west, the Sulaiman mountain 
 ranges, which are in southward continuation with the Himalayas, could be crossed through 
 the Khyber and Gomal passes. The Sulaiman ranges are joined southward in Baluchistan by 
 the Kirthar ranges which could be crossed through the Bolan pass. Through these passes, 
 two-way traffic between India and Central Asia has been going on from prehistoric times. 
 Various peoples from Iran, Afghanistan, and Soviet Central Asia came to India as invaders 
 and immigrants and vice versa. Even the Hindukush, the westward extension of the 
 Himalayan system, did not form an insuperable barrier between the Indus system and the 
 Oxus system. The passes facilitated trade and cultural contacts between India on the one 
 hand and Central Asia and West Asia on the other. 
 Nestled in the Himalayas are the valleys of Kashmir and Nepal. Surrounded on all sides by 
 high mountains, the valley of Kashmir developed its own way of life. But it could be reached 
 through several passes. Its winter compelled some of its people to go to the plains, and its 
 summer attracted the shepherds of the plains. Economic and cultural interaction between 
 the plains and the valley was continuous. The Pamir plateau did not prevent it from 
 becoming a transmitting centre of Buddhism for the adjacent areas of Central Asia. The 
 valley of Nepal, smaller in size, is accessible to the people of the Gangetic plains through a 
 number of passes. Like Kashmir, it also became a centre for cultivation of Sanskrit. Both the 
 valleys became the repositories of the largest number of Sanskrit manuscripts. 
 The foothills of the Himalayas lent themselves to easier clearance than the jungles on the 
 alluvial soil of the plains. It was easy to cross rivers in these areas because of their smaller 
 width, and hence the earliest routes skirted along the foothills of the Himalayas from the 
 west to the east and vice versa. Naturally, the earliest agricultural settlements and states 
 were founded in the foothills in the sixth century B.C., and trade routes followed the terai 
 route. 
 The heart of historical India is formed by its important rivers which are swollen by the tropical 
 monsoon rains. These consist of the plains of the Indus in the north-west, the 
 Ganga-Yamuna doab in the middle, the middle Gangetic basin in the east, and the 
 Brahmaputra basin in the extreme east. As we proceed from the plains of the Indus system 
 through the Gangetic basin to the Brahmaputra basin, we find the annual rainfall gradually 
 increasing from 25 cm to over 250 cm. The Indus vegetation based on 25 to 37 cm rainfall 
 and possibly the western Gangetic vegetation based on 37 to 60 cm rainfall could be cleared 
 with stone and copper implements and made fit for cultivation, but this was not possible in 
 the case of the middle Gangetic vegetation based on 60 to 125 cm rainfall, and certainly not 
 in the case of the lower Gangetic and Brahmaputra vegetation based on 125 to 250 cm 
 rainfall. The thickly forested areas, which also contained hard soil, could be cleared only with 
 the help of the iron implements which appeared at a much later stage. Therefore, the natural 
 resources of the western area were utilized first, and large-scale human settlements 
 generally spread from west to east. 
 Once brought under cultivation, the Indus-Gangetic plains produced rich crops and 
 supported successive cultures. The Indus and the western Gangetic plains mainly produced 
 wheat and barley, while the middle and lower Gangetic plains mainly produced rice, which 
 also became the staple diet in Gujarat and the south of the Vindhyas. The Harappan culture 
 originated and flourished in the Indus valley, the Vedic culture originated in the Punjab and 
 flourished in the western Gangetic basin; the post-Vedic culture, mainly based on the use of 
 iron, thrived in the middle Gangetic basin. The lower Gangetic valley and north Bengal first 
 came into limelight in the age of the Guptas, and, finally, the Brahmaputra valley covering 
 Assam gained importance in early medieval times. Important powers fought for the 
 possession of these plains and valleys. Especially the Ganga-Yamuna doab proved to be the 
 most coveted and contested area. 
 The rivers served as arteries of commerce and communication. In ancient times, it was 
 difficult to make roads, and so men and material were moved by boat. The river routes 
 therefore helped military and commercial transport. Evidently, the stone pillars made by 
 Asoka were carried to different parts of the country by boat. The importance of rivers for 
 communication continued till the days of the East India Company. Further, the rivers 
 inundated the neighbouring areas and madeParadoxically, the rivers caused heavy floods 
 which periodically destroyed towns and villages in the northern plains, and so many ancient 
 buildings have been washed away beyond recovery. Nevertheless, important towns and 
 capitals such as Hastinapur, Prayag, Varanasi, Pataliputra, and others, were situated on the 
 banks of the rivers. In modern times, urban sites are selected on the railway and road 
 junctions or in the industrial or mining zones. But in pre-industrial times, towns were mostly 
 situated on river banks. 
 Above all, the rivers provided political and cultural boundaries; these were also formed by 
 mountain barriers. Thus, in the eastern part of the Indian peninsula, the area known as 
 Kalinga, covering the coastal belt of Orissa, was situated between the Mahanadi on the 
 north and the Godavari on the south. Similarly, Andhra Pradesh mostly lay between the 
 Godavari on 
Page 4


 CHAPTER 3 
 The Geographical Setting 
 The history of India cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. The 
 Indian subcontinent is as large in area as Europe without Russia. Its total area is 4,202,500 
 square kilometres. The subcontinent is divided into three countries—India, Pakistan, and 
 Bangladesh. India has 650,000,000 people, Pakistan 50,000,000, and Bangladesh 
 75,000,000. India comprises twenty-two States and nine Union Territories. Some of the 
 States are larger than many European countries. For instance, Bihar is as large in area as 
 England, and Madhya Pradesh is larger than several European countries. 
 The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit, mostly situated in the tropical 
 zone. It is bounded by the Himalayas on the north and seas on the other three sides. The 
 Himalayas protect the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through 
 Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm throughout the year. Since 
 the cold is not so severe in the plains, people do not need heavy clothing and can live in the 
 open for longer periods. Secondly, the Himalayas are high enough to shield the country 
 against invasions from the north. This was especially true in pre-industrial times when 
 communications were very difficult. However, on the north-west, the Sulaiman mountain 
 ranges, which are in southward continuation with the Himalayas, could be crossed through 
 the Khyber and Gomal passes. The Sulaiman ranges are joined southward in Baluchistan by 
 the Kirthar ranges which could be crossed through the Bolan pass. Through these passes, 
 two-way traffic between India and Central Asia has been going on from prehistoric times. 
 Various peoples from Iran, Afghanistan, and Soviet Central Asia came to India as invaders 
 and immigrants and vice versa. Even the Hindukush, the westward extension of the 
 Himalayan system, did not form an insuperable barrier between the Indus system and the 
 Oxus system. The passes facilitated trade and cultural contacts between India on the one 
 hand and Central Asia and West Asia on the other. 
 Nestled in the Himalayas are the valleys of Kashmir and Nepal. Surrounded on all sides by 
 high mountains, the valley of Kashmir developed its own way of life. But it could be reached 
 through several passes. Its winter compelled some of its people to go to the plains, and its 
 summer attracted the shepherds of the plains. Economic and cultural interaction between 
 the plains and the valley was continuous. The Pamir plateau did not prevent it from 
 becoming a transmitting centre of Buddhism for the adjacent areas of Central Asia. The 
 valley of Nepal, smaller in size, is accessible to the people of the Gangetic plains through a 
 number of passes. Like Kashmir, it also became a centre for cultivation of Sanskrit. Both the 
 valleys became the repositories of the largest number of Sanskrit manuscripts. 
 The foothills of the Himalayas lent themselves to easier clearance than the jungles on the 
 alluvial soil of the plains. It was easy to cross rivers in these areas because of their smaller 
 width, and hence the earliest routes skirted along the foothills of the Himalayas from the 
 west to the east and vice versa. Naturally, the earliest agricultural settlements and states 
 were founded in the foothills in the sixth century B.C., and trade routes followed the terai 
 route. 
 The heart of historical India is formed by its important rivers which are swollen by the tropical 
 monsoon rains. These consist of the plains of the Indus in the north-west, the 
 Ganga-Yamuna doab in the middle, the middle Gangetic basin in the east, and the 
 Brahmaputra basin in the extreme east. As we proceed from the plains of the Indus system 
 through the Gangetic basin to the Brahmaputra basin, we find the annual rainfall gradually 
 increasing from 25 cm to over 250 cm. The Indus vegetation based on 25 to 37 cm rainfall 
 and possibly the western Gangetic vegetation based on 37 to 60 cm rainfall could be cleared 
 with stone and copper implements and made fit for cultivation, but this was not possible in 
 the case of the middle Gangetic vegetation based on 60 to 125 cm rainfall, and certainly not 
 in the case of the lower Gangetic and Brahmaputra vegetation based on 125 to 250 cm 
 rainfall. The thickly forested areas, which also contained hard soil, could be cleared only with 
 the help of the iron implements which appeared at a much later stage. Therefore, the natural 
 resources of the western area were utilized first, and large-scale human settlements 
 generally spread from west to east. 
 Once brought under cultivation, the Indus-Gangetic plains produced rich crops and 
 supported successive cultures. The Indus and the western Gangetic plains mainly produced 
 wheat and barley, while the middle and lower Gangetic plains mainly produced rice, which 
 also became the staple diet in Gujarat and the south of the Vindhyas. The Harappan culture 
 originated and flourished in the Indus valley, the Vedic culture originated in the Punjab and 
 flourished in the western Gangetic basin; the post-Vedic culture, mainly based on the use of 
 iron, thrived in the middle Gangetic basin. The lower Gangetic valley and north Bengal first 
 came into limelight in the age of the Guptas, and, finally, the Brahmaputra valley covering 
 Assam gained importance in early medieval times. Important powers fought for the 
 possession of these plains and valleys. Especially the Ganga-Yamuna doab proved to be the 
 most coveted and contested area. 
 The rivers served as arteries of commerce and communication. In ancient times, it was 
 difficult to make roads, and so men and material were moved by boat. The river routes 
 therefore helped military and commercial transport. Evidently, the stone pillars made by 
 Asoka were carried to different parts of the country by boat. The importance of rivers for 
 communication continued till the days of the East India Company. Further, the rivers 
 inundated the neighbouring areas and madeParadoxically, the rivers caused heavy floods 
 which periodically destroyed towns and villages in the northern plains, and so many ancient 
 buildings have been washed away beyond recovery. Nevertheless, important towns and 
 capitals such as Hastinapur, Prayag, Varanasi, Pataliputra, and others, were situated on the 
 banks of the rivers. In modern times, urban sites are selected on the railway and road 
 junctions or in the industrial or mining zones. But in pre-industrial times, towns were mostly 
 situated on river banks. 
 Above all, the rivers provided political and cultural boundaries; these were also formed by 
 mountain barriers. Thus, in the eastern part of the Indian peninsula, the area known as 
 Kalinga, covering the coastal belt of Orissa, was situated between the Mahanadi on the 
 north and the Godavari on the south. Similarly, Andhra Pradesh mostly lay between the 
 Godavari on 
 the north and the Krishna on the south. The deltaic plains formed by these two rivers at their 
 mouths shot into historical importance by the beginning of the Christian era when they 
 became studded with towns and ports under the Satavahanas and their successors. Finally, 
 Tamil Nadu was situated between the Krishna on the north and the Kaveri on the south. The 
 Kaveri delta extended in the south roughly to the Vaigai river, and in the north to the South 
 Pennar river. It formed a distinct geographical zone and became the seat of the Chola power 
 a little before the beginning of the Christian era. This area was different from north Tamil 
 Nadu, which consisted of uplands and came into prominence under the Pallavas in the 
 fourth-sixth centuries A.D. The eastern part of the peninsula is bounded by the Coromandel 
 coast. Although the coastline is flanked by the Eastern Ghats or the steps, the Ghats are not 
Page 5


 CHAPTER 3 
 The Geographical Setting 
 The history of India cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. The 
 Indian subcontinent is as large in area as Europe without Russia. Its total area is 4,202,500 
 square kilometres. The subcontinent is divided into three countries—India, Pakistan, and 
 Bangladesh. India has 650,000,000 people, Pakistan 50,000,000, and Bangladesh 
 75,000,000. India comprises twenty-two States and nine Union Territories. Some of the 
 States are larger than many European countries. For instance, Bihar is as large in area as 
 England, and Madhya Pradesh is larger than several European countries. 
 The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit, mostly situated in the tropical 
 zone. It is bounded by the Himalayas on the north and seas on the other three sides. The 
 Himalayas protect the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through 
 Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm throughout the year. Since 
 the cold is not so severe in the plains, people do not need heavy clothing and can live in the 
 open for longer periods. Secondly, the Himalayas are high enough to shield the country 
 against invasions from the north. This was especially true in pre-industrial times when 
 communications were very difficult. However, on the north-west, the Sulaiman mountain 
 ranges, which are in southward continuation with the Himalayas, could be crossed through 
 the Khyber and Gomal passes. The Sulaiman ranges are joined southward in Baluchistan by 
 the Kirthar ranges which could be crossed through the Bolan pass. Through these passes, 
 two-way traffic between India and Central Asia has been going on from prehistoric times. 
 Various peoples from Iran, Afghanistan, and Soviet Central Asia came to India as invaders 
 and immigrants and vice versa. Even the Hindukush, the westward extension of the 
 Himalayan system, did not form an insuperable barrier between the Indus system and the 
 Oxus system. The passes facilitated trade and cultural contacts between India on the one 
 hand and Central Asia and West Asia on the other. 
 Nestled in the Himalayas are the valleys of Kashmir and Nepal. Surrounded on all sides by 
 high mountains, the valley of Kashmir developed its own way of life. But it could be reached 
 through several passes. Its winter compelled some of its people to go to the plains, and its 
 summer attracted the shepherds of the plains. Economic and cultural interaction between 
 the plains and the valley was continuous. The Pamir plateau did not prevent it from 
 becoming a transmitting centre of Buddhism for the adjacent areas of Central Asia. The 
 valley of Nepal, smaller in size, is accessible to the people of the Gangetic plains through a 
 number of passes. Like Kashmir, it also became a centre for cultivation of Sanskrit. Both the 
 valleys became the repositories of the largest number of Sanskrit manuscripts. 
 The foothills of the Himalayas lent themselves to easier clearance than the jungles on the 
 alluvial soil of the plains. It was easy to cross rivers in these areas because of their smaller 
 width, and hence the earliest routes skirted along the foothills of the Himalayas from the 
 west to the east and vice versa. Naturally, the earliest agricultural settlements and states 
 were founded in the foothills in the sixth century B.C., and trade routes followed the terai 
 route. 
 The heart of historical India is formed by its important rivers which are swollen by the tropical 
 monsoon rains. These consist of the plains of the Indus in the north-west, the 
 Ganga-Yamuna doab in the middle, the middle Gangetic basin in the east, and the 
 Brahmaputra basin in the extreme east. As we proceed from the plains of the Indus system 
 through the Gangetic basin to the Brahmaputra basin, we find the annual rainfall gradually 
 increasing from 25 cm to over 250 cm. The Indus vegetation based on 25 to 37 cm rainfall 
 and possibly the western Gangetic vegetation based on 37 to 60 cm rainfall could be cleared 
 with stone and copper implements and made fit for cultivation, but this was not possible in 
 the case of the middle Gangetic vegetation based on 60 to 125 cm rainfall, and certainly not 
 in the case of the lower Gangetic and Brahmaputra vegetation based on 125 to 250 cm 
 rainfall. The thickly forested areas, which also contained hard soil, could be cleared only with 
 the help of the iron implements which appeared at a much later stage. Therefore, the natural 
 resources of the western area were utilized first, and large-scale human settlements 
 generally spread from west to east. 
 Once brought under cultivation, the Indus-Gangetic plains produced rich crops and 
 supported successive cultures. The Indus and the western Gangetic plains mainly produced 
 wheat and barley, while the middle and lower Gangetic plains mainly produced rice, which 
 also became the staple diet in Gujarat and the south of the Vindhyas. The Harappan culture 
 originated and flourished in the Indus valley, the Vedic culture originated in the Punjab and 
 flourished in the western Gangetic basin; the post-Vedic culture, mainly based on the use of 
 iron, thrived in the middle Gangetic basin. The lower Gangetic valley and north Bengal first 
 came into limelight in the age of the Guptas, and, finally, the Brahmaputra valley covering 
 Assam gained importance in early medieval times. Important powers fought for the 
 possession of these plains and valleys. Especially the Ganga-Yamuna doab proved to be the 
 most coveted and contested area. 
 The rivers served as arteries of commerce and communication. In ancient times, it was 
 difficult to make roads, and so men and material were moved by boat. The river routes 
 therefore helped military and commercial transport. Evidently, the stone pillars made by 
 Asoka were carried to different parts of the country by boat. The importance of rivers for 
 communication continued till the days of the East India Company. Further, the rivers 
 inundated the neighbouring areas and madeParadoxically, the rivers caused heavy floods 
 which periodically destroyed towns and villages in the northern plains, and so many ancient 
 buildings have been washed away beyond recovery. Nevertheless, important towns and 
 capitals such as Hastinapur, Prayag, Varanasi, Pataliputra, and others, were situated on the 
 banks of the rivers. In modern times, urban sites are selected on the railway and road 
 junctions or in the industrial or mining zones. But in pre-industrial times, towns were mostly 
 situated on river banks. 
 Above all, the rivers provided political and cultural boundaries; these were also formed by 
 mountain barriers. Thus, in the eastern part of the Indian peninsula, the area known as 
 Kalinga, covering the coastal belt of Orissa, was situated between the Mahanadi on the 
 north and the Godavari on the south. Similarly, Andhra Pradesh mostly lay between the 
 Godavari on 
 the north and the Krishna on the south. The deltaic plains formed by these two rivers at their 
 mouths shot into historical importance by the beginning of the Christian era when they 
 became studded with towns and ports under the Satavahanas and their successors. Finally, 
 Tamil Nadu was situated between the Krishna on the north and the Kaveri on the south. The 
 Kaveri delta extended in the south roughly to the Vaigai river, and in the north to the South 
 Pennar river. It formed a distinct geographical zone and became the seat of the Chola power 
 a little before the beginning of the Christian era. This area was different from north Tamil 
 Nadu, which consisted of uplands and came into prominence under the Pallavas in the 
 fourth-sixth centuries A.D. The eastern part of the peninsula is bounded by the Coromandel 
 coast. Although the coastline is flanked by the Eastern Ghats or the steps, the Ghats are not 
 very high and have several openings caused by the eastward flow of the rivers into the Bay 
 of Bengal. Thus, communication between the eastern coast on the one hand and the other 
 parts of Andhra and Tamil Nadu on the other was not difficult in ancient times. The port cities 
 of Arikamedu (modern name), Mahabalipuram, and Kaveripattinam were situated on the 
 Coromandel coast. 
 In the western part of the peninsula, we do not have such distinct regional units. But we can 
 locate Maharashtra between the Tapti (or Damanganga) on the north and the Bhima on the 
 south. The area covered by Karnataka seems to have been situated between the Bhima and 
 the upper regions of the Krishna on the north and the Tungabhadra on the south. For a long 
 time, the Tungabhadra provided a natural frontier between powers lying to its north and 
 south. The Chalukyas of Badami and the Rashtrakutas found it difficult to extend their sway 
 to the south of the Tungabhadra, so also the Pallavas and Cholas found it difficult to extend 
 their authority to its north. 
 The coastal area in the extreme south-west of the peninsula was covered by the modern 
 State of Kerala. The sea-coast along the western part of the peninsula is called the Malabar 
 coast. Although the coast came to have several ports and small kingdoms, communication 
 between this coast and the adjoining areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala was 
 rendered difficult by the high Western Ghats which do not have too many passes. 
 In between the Indus and the Gangetic systems in the north and the Vindhya mountains on 
 the south lies a vast stretch of land, which is divided into two units by the Aravalli mountains. 
 The area west of the Aravalli is covered by the Thar desert, although a part of Rajasthan 
 also lies in this region. The vast expanse of the desert made human settlements impossible 
 in ancient times. However, a few fertile oases scattered in the desert were settled, and from 
 early times, it has been possible to cross the desert by means of camels. The south-eastern 
 portion of Rajasthan has been a comparatively fertile area since ancient times, and because 
 of the existence of the Khetri copper mines in this region, human settlements arose in this 
 area in the Chalcolithic period. 
 Rajasthan shades off into the fertile plains of Gujarat, which are drained by the waters of the 
 Narmada, the Tapti, the Mahi, and the Sabarmati. Situated at the end of the north-western 
 portion of the Deccan plateau, Gujarat includes the less rainy region of Kathiawar peninsula. 
 The coastal area of this State is fairly indented, allowing the existence of several harbours. 
 Therefore, from ancient times, Gujarat has been famous for its coastal and foreign trade, 
 and its people have proved to be enterprising traders. 
 South of the Ganga-Yamuna doab, and bounded by the Chambal river on the west, the Son 
 river on the east, and the Vindhya mountains and the Narmada river on the south, lies the 
 State of Madhya Pradesh. Its northern part consists of fertile plains. At present, Madhya 
 Pradesh is the largest State in the country and can be broadly divided into two parts, eastern 
 and western. The eastern part, mostly covered by the Vindhyas, did not become important 
 historically till Gupta times in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. But western Madhya Pradesh 
 includes Malwa, which has been the scene of historical activities from the sixth century B.C. 
 onwards. Malwa served as an important hinterland for the Gujarat ports, and many wars 
 were fought between the Deccan and the northern powers for the possession of Malwa and