Old NCERT Textbook (Satish Chandra): India & the World | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

 Page 1


ONE
India and the World
The thousand year period between the eighth and the eighteenth century saw
important changes in India and the world. New social and political forms rose
in Europe as well as Asia. The new forms also had profound effects on the
thinking and living patterns of the peoples. These changes had an impact on
India also since India had long-standing trade and cultural relations with
countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the various empires which
arose in the area, including the Roman and Persian empires.
EUROPE
In Europe, the mighty Roman empire had broken into two by the third
quarter of the sixth century. The western part with its capital at Rome had
been overwhelmed by the Slav and Germanic tribesmen coming from the side
of Russia and Germany. These tribes came in many waves, and indulged in a
great deal of ravaging and plundering in the territories of the old Roman
empire. But, in course of time, these tribes settled down in different parts of
Europe, profoundly changing the character of the old population as well as
the languages and pattern of governments. The foundations of many of the
modern European nations were laid during this period as a result of the
commingling of these tribesmen with the local population.
The eastern part of the old Roman empire had its capital at Byzantium or
Constantinopole. This empire which was called the Byzantine empire
included most of eastern Europe as well as modern Turkey, Syria and North
Africa, including Egypt. It continued many of the traditions of the Roman
empire such as a strong monarchy and a highly centralized administration.
However, in belief and ritual, it had many differences with the Catholic
Church in the West which had its head quarters at Rome. The church in the
East was called the Greek Orthodox Church. It was due to its efforts and those
Page 2


ONE
India and the World
The thousand year period between the eighth and the eighteenth century saw
important changes in India and the world. New social and political forms rose
in Europe as well as Asia. The new forms also had profound effects on the
thinking and living patterns of the peoples. These changes had an impact on
India also since India had long-standing trade and cultural relations with
countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the various empires which
arose in the area, including the Roman and Persian empires.
EUROPE
In Europe, the mighty Roman empire had broken into two by the third
quarter of the sixth century. The western part with its capital at Rome had
been overwhelmed by the Slav and Germanic tribesmen coming from the side
of Russia and Germany. These tribes came in many waves, and indulged in a
great deal of ravaging and plundering in the territories of the old Roman
empire. But, in course of time, these tribes settled down in different parts of
Europe, profoundly changing the character of the old population as well as
the languages and pattern of governments. The foundations of many of the
modern European nations were laid during this period as a result of the
commingling of these tribesmen with the local population.
The eastern part of the old Roman empire had its capital at Byzantium or
Constantinopole. This empire which was called the Byzantine empire
included most of eastern Europe as well as modern Turkey, Syria and North
Africa, including Egypt. It continued many of the traditions of the Roman
empire such as a strong monarchy and a highly centralized administration.
However, in belief and ritual, it had many differences with the Catholic
Church in the West which had its head quarters at Rome. The church in the
East was called the Greek Orthodox Church. It was due to its efforts and those
of the Byzantine rulers that Russia was converted to Christianity. The
Byzantine empire was a large and flourishing empire which continued to
trade with Asia after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West. It created
traditions of government and culture many of which were later absorbed by
the Arabs when they overran Syria and Egypt. It also acted as a bridge
between the Greco-Roman civilization and the Arab world, and later helped
in the revival of Greek learning in the West. It disappeared finally in the
middle of the fifteenth century when Constantinopole fell to the Turks.
For centuries after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West, the cities
virtually disappeared in western Europe. One cause of this was the absence of
gold which the Romans had obtained from Africa and used for trade with the
Orient. The period between the sixth and tenth centuries was for long called a
‘Dark Age’ by historians. However, this was also a period of agricultural
expansion which prepared the way for the revival of city life from the tenth
century, and growth of foreign trade. Between the twelfth and the fourteenth
century, western Europe was again able to attain a high level of prosperity. A
notable feature of the period was the growth of science and technology,
growth of towns, and the establishment of universities in a number of cities,
such as Padua and Milan in Italy. The universities played an important part in
the growth of new learning and new ideas which were gradually to lead to the
Renaissance and the rise of a new Europe.
Growth of Feudalism
A new type of society and a new system of government rose in western
Europe, following the breakup of the Roman empire. The new order that
gradually emerged is called feudalism. This is derived from the Latin word
feudum which in English became fief. In this society the most powerful
elements were the chiefs who, with their military following, dominated large
tracts of land and also played an important part in government. The king was
just like one of the more powerful feudal chiefs. In course of time, the
monarchy became stronger and an attempt was made to limit the power of
the chiefs, who constantly fought each other leading to a state of social
anarchy. One method of controlling this was that the king swore the chiefs to
an oath of loyalty to him as his vassals, and, in return, recognized the tract of
Page 3


ONE
India and the World
The thousand year period between the eighth and the eighteenth century saw
important changes in India and the world. New social and political forms rose
in Europe as well as Asia. The new forms also had profound effects on the
thinking and living patterns of the peoples. These changes had an impact on
India also since India had long-standing trade and cultural relations with
countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the various empires which
arose in the area, including the Roman and Persian empires.
EUROPE
In Europe, the mighty Roman empire had broken into two by the third
quarter of the sixth century. The western part with its capital at Rome had
been overwhelmed by the Slav and Germanic tribesmen coming from the side
of Russia and Germany. These tribes came in many waves, and indulged in a
great deal of ravaging and plundering in the territories of the old Roman
empire. But, in course of time, these tribes settled down in different parts of
Europe, profoundly changing the character of the old population as well as
the languages and pattern of governments. The foundations of many of the
modern European nations were laid during this period as a result of the
commingling of these tribesmen with the local population.
The eastern part of the old Roman empire had its capital at Byzantium or
Constantinopole. This empire which was called the Byzantine empire
included most of eastern Europe as well as modern Turkey, Syria and North
Africa, including Egypt. It continued many of the traditions of the Roman
empire such as a strong monarchy and a highly centralized administration.
However, in belief and ritual, it had many differences with the Catholic
Church in the West which had its head quarters at Rome. The church in the
East was called the Greek Orthodox Church. It was due to its efforts and those
of the Byzantine rulers that Russia was converted to Christianity. The
Byzantine empire was a large and flourishing empire which continued to
trade with Asia after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West. It created
traditions of government and culture many of which were later absorbed by
the Arabs when they overran Syria and Egypt. It also acted as a bridge
between the Greco-Roman civilization and the Arab world, and later helped
in the revival of Greek learning in the West. It disappeared finally in the
middle of the fifteenth century when Constantinopole fell to the Turks.
For centuries after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West, the cities
virtually disappeared in western Europe. One cause of this was the absence of
gold which the Romans had obtained from Africa and used for trade with the
Orient. The period between the sixth and tenth centuries was for long called a
‘Dark Age’ by historians. However, this was also a period of agricultural
expansion which prepared the way for the revival of city life from the tenth
century, and growth of foreign trade. Between the twelfth and the fourteenth
century, western Europe was again able to attain a high level of prosperity. A
notable feature of the period was the growth of science and technology,
growth of towns, and the establishment of universities in a number of cities,
such as Padua and Milan in Italy. The universities played an important part in
the growth of new learning and new ideas which were gradually to lead to the
Renaissance and the rise of a new Europe.
Growth of Feudalism
A new type of society and a new system of government rose in western
Europe, following the breakup of the Roman empire. The new order that
gradually emerged is called feudalism. This is derived from the Latin word
feudum which in English became fief. In this society the most powerful
elements were the chiefs who, with their military following, dominated large
tracts of land and also played an important part in government. The king was
just like one of the more powerful feudal chiefs. In course of time, the
monarchy became stronger and an attempt was made to limit the power of
the chiefs, who constantly fought each other leading to a state of social
anarchy. One method of controlling this was that the king swore the chiefs to
an oath of loyalty to him as his vassals, and, in return, recognized the tract of
land dominated by the chiefs as their fiefs. The chiefs, in turn, could appoint
sub-chiefs as vassals, and allot a tract out of their fief to them. The king could,
in theory, resume the fief of a disloyal vassal, but, in practice, this was rarely
done. Thus, in the feudal system, government was dominated by a landed
aristocracy. The aristocracy soon became hereditary and tried its best not to
admit outsiders to its fold. But it was never a completely closed aristocracy,
with disloyal chiefs being removed, and new ones being appointed, or rising
to power.
The feudal system is associated with two other features. First is the system
of serfdom. A serf was a peasant who worked on the land but could not
change his profession, or migrate to any other area or marry without the
permission of his lord or master. Associated with this system was the manor.
The manor was the house or castle where the lord lived. In many of the
European countries, large tracts of land were owned by the lords of these
manors. A part of the land was cultivated by the lord directly with the help of
serfs who had to divide their time between cultivating their own fields and the
fields of their master. The land belonged theoretically to the lord, and the serf
had to pay him other dues in cash and kind. The lord of the manor also had
the responsibility of maintaining law and order, dispensing justice, etc. Since
there was a great deal of lawlessness in those days, even free peasants were
sometimes prepared to accept the vassalage of the lord of the manor in return
for protection.
Some historians think that the system of serfdom and the manor system are
vital parts of feudalism, and that it is wrong to speak of feudalism for societies
in which these two did not exist. In India, for instance, there was no serfdom
and no manor system as such. But the local landed elements (samantas)
exercised many of the powers of the feudal lords, and the peasantry was in a
dependent position to them. In other words, what mattered was not whether
the peasantry was formally free, but the manner and the extent to which it
could exercise its freedom. In many countries of western Europe, the manor
system, and the system of labour dues by the peasants disappeared after the
fourteenth century.
The second feature associated with the feudal system in Europe is the
system of military organization. The most typical symbol of the feudal system
Page 4


ONE
India and the World
The thousand year period between the eighth and the eighteenth century saw
important changes in India and the world. New social and political forms rose
in Europe as well as Asia. The new forms also had profound effects on the
thinking and living patterns of the peoples. These changes had an impact on
India also since India had long-standing trade and cultural relations with
countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the various empires which
arose in the area, including the Roman and Persian empires.
EUROPE
In Europe, the mighty Roman empire had broken into two by the third
quarter of the sixth century. The western part with its capital at Rome had
been overwhelmed by the Slav and Germanic tribesmen coming from the side
of Russia and Germany. These tribes came in many waves, and indulged in a
great deal of ravaging and plundering in the territories of the old Roman
empire. But, in course of time, these tribes settled down in different parts of
Europe, profoundly changing the character of the old population as well as
the languages and pattern of governments. The foundations of many of the
modern European nations were laid during this period as a result of the
commingling of these tribesmen with the local population.
The eastern part of the old Roman empire had its capital at Byzantium or
Constantinopole. This empire which was called the Byzantine empire
included most of eastern Europe as well as modern Turkey, Syria and North
Africa, including Egypt. It continued many of the traditions of the Roman
empire such as a strong monarchy and a highly centralized administration.
However, in belief and ritual, it had many differences with the Catholic
Church in the West which had its head quarters at Rome. The church in the
East was called the Greek Orthodox Church. It was due to its efforts and those
of the Byzantine rulers that Russia was converted to Christianity. The
Byzantine empire was a large and flourishing empire which continued to
trade with Asia after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West. It created
traditions of government and culture many of which were later absorbed by
the Arabs when they overran Syria and Egypt. It also acted as a bridge
between the Greco-Roman civilization and the Arab world, and later helped
in the revival of Greek learning in the West. It disappeared finally in the
middle of the fifteenth century when Constantinopole fell to the Turks.
For centuries after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West, the cities
virtually disappeared in western Europe. One cause of this was the absence of
gold which the Romans had obtained from Africa and used for trade with the
Orient. The period between the sixth and tenth centuries was for long called a
‘Dark Age’ by historians. However, this was also a period of agricultural
expansion which prepared the way for the revival of city life from the tenth
century, and growth of foreign trade. Between the twelfth and the fourteenth
century, western Europe was again able to attain a high level of prosperity. A
notable feature of the period was the growth of science and technology,
growth of towns, and the establishment of universities in a number of cities,
such as Padua and Milan in Italy. The universities played an important part in
the growth of new learning and new ideas which were gradually to lead to the
Renaissance and the rise of a new Europe.
Growth of Feudalism
A new type of society and a new system of government rose in western
Europe, following the breakup of the Roman empire. The new order that
gradually emerged is called feudalism. This is derived from the Latin word
feudum which in English became fief. In this society the most powerful
elements were the chiefs who, with their military following, dominated large
tracts of land and also played an important part in government. The king was
just like one of the more powerful feudal chiefs. In course of time, the
monarchy became stronger and an attempt was made to limit the power of
the chiefs, who constantly fought each other leading to a state of social
anarchy. One method of controlling this was that the king swore the chiefs to
an oath of loyalty to him as his vassals, and, in return, recognized the tract of
land dominated by the chiefs as their fiefs. The chiefs, in turn, could appoint
sub-chiefs as vassals, and allot a tract out of their fief to them. The king could,
in theory, resume the fief of a disloyal vassal, but, in practice, this was rarely
done. Thus, in the feudal system, government was dominated by a landed
aristocracy. The aristocracy soon became hereditary and tried its best not to
admit outsiders to its fold. But it was never a completely closed aristocracy,
with disloyal chiefs being removed, and new ones being appointed, or rising
to power.
The feudal system is associated with two other features. First is the system
of serfdom. A serf was a peasant who worked on the land but could not
change his profession, or migrate to any other area or marry without the
permission of his lord or master. Associated with this system was the manor.
The manor was the house or castle where the lord lived. In many of the
European countries, large tracts of land were owned by the lords of these
manors. A part of the land was cultivated by the lord directly with the help of
serfs who had to divide their time between cultivating their own fields and the
fields of their master. The land belonged theoretically to the lord, and the serf
had to pay him other dues in cash and kind. The lord of the manor also had
the responsibility of maintaining law and order, dispensing justice, etc. Since
there was a great deal of lawlessness in those days, even free peasants were
sometimes prepared to accept the vassalage of the lord of the manor in return
for protection.
Some historians think that the system of serfdom and the manor system are
vital parts of feudalism, and that it is wrong to speak of feudalism for societies
in which these two did not exist. In India, for instance, there was no serfdom
and no manor system as such. But the local landed elements (samantas)
exercised many of the powers of the feudal lords, and the peasantry was in a
dependent position to them. In other words, what mattered was not whether
the peasantry was formally free, but the manner and the extent to which it
could exercise its freedom. In many countries of western Europe, the manor
system, and the system of labour dues by the peasants disappeared after the
fourteenth century.
The second feature associated with the feudal system in Europe is the
system of military organization. The most typical symbol of the feudal system
was the armoured knight on horseback. Actually, the system of cavalry
warfare can roughly be traced back in Europe only to the eighth century. In
the Roman times, the chief wings of the army were the heavy and light
infantry, armed with long spears and short swords. Horses were used to draw
chariots in which the officers rode. It is generally believed that the mode of
warfare changed with the arrival of the Arabs. The Arabs had a large supply of
horses and their swift movements and mounted archers made the infantry
largely ineffective. The problem of developing and maintaining the
organization needed for the new mode of warfare helped in the growth of
feudalism in Europe. No king could hope to maintain out of his own
resources the large body of cavalry that was needed, and to provide them with
armour and equipment. Hence, the army was decentralized, assigning to the
fief-holders the responsibility of maintaining a fixed force of cavalry and
infantry for the service of the king.
Cavalry warfare became the principal mode of warfare on account of two
inventions which, though much older, began to be used on a large scale
during this period. The first was the iron stirrup. The iron stirrup made it
possible for a heavily armoured person to sit firmly on a horse without falling
off. It also made possible a cavalry charge with lances held tightly to the body,
without the rider being thrown off by the shock of the impact. The earlier
device was either a wooden stirrup or a piece of rope which only provided a
toe-hold. Another invention was a new type of harness which enabled a horse
to d raw twice the amount of load it pulled earlier. It is believed that both
these inventions came to Europe from the East, possibly from East Asia. They
spread in India from the tenth century onwards.
Thus, many factors, political, economic and military, were responsible for
the growth of feudalism in Europe. Even when stronger governments
emerged after the eleventh century, the tradition had become too strong for
the king to reduce easily the power of the feudal chiefs.
Apart from the system of feudalism, the pattern of life in Europe during
what is called the medieval period was also shaped by the Christian Church.
We have already referred to the role of the Greek Orthodox Church in the
Byzantine empire and in Russia. In the absence of a powerful empire in the
West, the Catholic Church took on some of the functions of the government
Page 5


ONE
India and the World
The thousand year period between the eighth and the eighteenth century saw
important changes in India and the world. New social and political forms rose
in Europe as well as Asia. The new forms also had profound effects on the
thinking and living patterns of the peoples. These changes had an impact on
India also since India had long-standing trade and cultural relations with
countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the various empires which
arose in the area, including the Roman and Persian empires.
EUROPE
In Europe, the mighty Roman empire had broken into two by the third
quarter of the sixth century. The western part with its capital at Rome had
been overwhelmed by the Slav and Germanic tribesmen coming from the side
of Russia and Germany. These tribes came in many waves, and indulged in a
great deal of ravaging and plundering in the territories of the old Roman
empire. But, in course of time, these tribes settled down in different parts of
Europe, profoundly changing the character of the old population as well as
the languages and pattern of governments. The foundations of many of the
modern European nations were laid during this period as a result of the
commingling of these tribesmen with the local population.
The eastern part of the old Roman empire had its capital at Byzantium or
Constantinopole. This empire which was called the Byzantine empire
included most of eastern Europe as well as modern Turkey, Syria and North
Africa, including Egypt. It continued many of the traditions of the Roman
empire such as a strong monarchy and a highly centralized administration.
However, in belief and ritual, it had many differences with the Catholic
Church in the West which had its head quarters at Rome. The church in the
East was called the Greek Orthodox Church. It was due to its efforts and those
of the Byzantine rulers that Russia was converted to Christianity. The
Byzantine empire was a large and flourishing empire which continued to
trade with Asia after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West. It created
traditions of government and culture many of which were later absorbed by
the Arabs when they overran Syria and Egypt. It also acted as a bridge
between the Greco-Roman civilization and the Arab world, and later helped
in the revival of Greek learning in the West. It disappeared finally in the
middle of the fifteenth century when Constantinopole fell to the Turks.
For centuries after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West, the cities
virtually disappeared in western Europe. One cause of this was the absence of
gold which the Romans had obtained from Africa and used for trade with the
Orient. The period between the sixth and tenth centuries was for long called a
‘Dark Age’ by historians. However, this was also a period of agricultural
expansion which prepared the way for the revival of city life from the tenth
century, and growth of foreign trade. Between the twelfth and the fourteenth
century, western Europe was again able to attain a high level of prosperity. A
notable feature of the period was the growth of science and technology,
growth of towns, and the establishment of universities in a number of cities,
such as Padua and Milan in Italy. The universities played an important part in
the growth of new learning and new ideas which were gradually to lead to the
Renaissance and the rise of a new Europe.
Growth of Feudalism
A new type of society and a new system of government rose in western
Europe, following the breakup of the Roman empire. The new order that
gradually emerged is called feudalism. This is derived from the Latin word
feudum which in English became fief. In this society the most powerful
elements were the chiefs who, with their military following, dominated large
tracts of land and also played an important part in government. The king was
just like one of the more powerful feudal chiefs. In course of time, the
monarchy became stronger and an attempt was made to limit the power of
the chiefs, who constantly fought each other leading to a state of social
anarchy. One method of controlling this was that the king swore the chiefs to
an oath of loyalty to him as his vassals, and, in return, recognized the tract of
land dominated by the chiefs as their fiefs. The chiefs, in turn, could appoint
sub-chiefs as vassals, and allot a tract out of their fief to them. The king could,
in theory, resume the fief of a disloyal vassal, but, in practice, this was rarely
done. Thus, in the feudal system, government was dominated by a landed
aristocracy. The aristocracy soon became hereditary and tried its best not to
admit outsiders to its fold. But it was never a completely closed aristocracy,
with disloyal chiefs being removed, and new ones being appointed, or rising
to power.
The feudal system is associated with two other features. First is the system
of serfdom. A serf was a peasant who worked on the land but could not
change his profession, or migrate to any other area or marry without the
permission of his lord or master. Associated with this system was the manor.
The manor was the house or castle where the lord lived. In many of the
European countries, large tracts of land were owned by the lords of these
manors. A part of the land was cultivated by the lord directly with the help of
serfs who had to divide their time between cultivating their own fields and the
fields of their master. The land belonged theoretically to the lord, and the serf
had to pay him other dues in cash and kind. The lord of the manor also had
the responsibility of maintaining law and order, dispensing justice, etc. Since
there was a great deal of lawlessness in those days, even free peasants were
sometimes prepared to accept the vassalage of the lord of the manor in return
for protection.
Some historians think that the system of serfdom and the manor system are
vital parts of feudalism, and that it is wrong to speak of feudalism for societies
in which these two did not exist. In India, for instance, there was no serfdom
and no manor system as such. But the local landed elements (samantas)
exercised many of the powers of the feudal lords, and the peasantry was in a
dependent position to them. In other words, what mattered was not whether
the peasantry was formally free, but the manner and the extent to which it
could exercise its freedom. In many countries of western Europe, the manor
system, and the system of labour dues by the peasants disappeared after the
fourteenth century.
The second feature associated with the feudal system in Europe is the
system of military organization. The most typical symbol of the feudal system
was the armoured knight on horseback. Actually, the system of cavalry
warfare can roughly be traced back in Europe only to the eighth century. In
the Roman times, the chief wings of the army were the heavy and light
infantry, armed with long spears and short swords. Horses were used to draw
chariots in which the officers rode. It is generally believed that the mode of
warfare changed with the arrival of the Arabs. The Arabs had a large supply of
horses and their swift movements and mounted archers made the infantry
largely ineffective. The problem of developing and maintaining the
organization needed for the new mode of warfare helped in the growth of
feudalism in Europe. No king could hope to maintain out of his own
resources the large body of cavalry that was needed, and to provide them with
armour and equipment. Hence, the army was decentralized, assigning to the
fief-holders the responsibility of maintaining a fixed force of cavalry and
infantry for the service of the king.
Cavalry warfare became the principal mode of warfare on account of two
inventions which, though much older, began to be used on a large scale
during this period. The first was the iron stirrup. The iron stirrup made it
possible for a heavily armoured person to sit firmly on a horse without falling
off. It also made possible a cavalry charge with lances held tightly to the body,
without the rider being thrown off by the shock of the impact. The earlier
device was either a wooden stirrup or a piece of rope which only provided a
toe-hold. Another invention was a new type of harness which enabled a horse
to d raw twice the amount of load it pulled earlier. It is believed that both
these inventions came to Europe from the East, possibly from East Asia. They
spread in India from the tenth century onwards.
Thus, many factors, political, economic and military, were responsible for
the growth of feudalism in Europe. Even when stronger governments
emerged after the eleventh century, the tradition had become too strong for
the king to reduce easily the power of the feudal chiefs.
Apart from the system of feudalism, the pattern of life in Europe during
what is called the medieval period was also shaped by the Christian Church.
We have already referred to the role of the Greek Orthodox Church in the
Byzantine empire and in Russia. In the absence of a powerful empire in the
West, the Catholic Church took on some of the functions of the government
as well. The Pope, who was the head of the Catholic Church, became not only
a religious head, but also a figure who exercised a great deal of political and
moral authority. In Europe, as in West Asia and in India, the Medieval Age
was an age of religion, and those who spoke on behalf of religion exercised a
great deal of power and influence. With the help of grants of land from the
princes and feudal chiefs, and donations from rich merchants, many
monastic orders and monasteries were set up. Some of these orders, such as
that of the Franciscans, served the needy and the poor. Many monasteries,
gave medical help, or shelter to the travellers. They also served as centres for
education and learning. In this way, the Catholic Church played an important
role in the cultural life of Europe.
However, some of the monasteries which became exceedingly wealthy
began to behave like feudal lords. This led to internal discord, and conflict
with the rulers who resented the worldly power of the Church and of the
Popes. This conflict was reflected in the Renaissance and Reform movements
later on.
THE ARAB WORLD
The rise of Islam from the seventh century onwards was instrumental in
uniting the warring Arab tribes into a powerful empire. The Arab empire
founded by the early caliphs embraced, apart from Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Iran,
Egypt, North Africa and Spain.
Following internal differences and civil war among the Arab tribes, in the
middle of the eighth century the caliph at Damascus was displaced, and a new
dynasty, called the Abbasids came to power. They set up their capital at the
newly founded city of Baghdad.The Abbasids claimed to belong to the same
tribe to which the Prophet Muhammad belonged, and were for that reason
considered holy. For about 150 years the Abbasid empire was one of the most
powerful and flourishing empire in the world. At its height, it included all the
important centres of civilization in the area, viz., parts of North Africa, Egypt,
Syria, Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids controlled not only some of the most
important regions of West Asia and North Africa but also commanded the
important trade routes linking the Mediterranean world with India. The