Old NCERT Textbook (Satish Chandra): The Age of Vijayanagara and the Bahmanids, Coming of Portuguese | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

 Page 1


NINE
The Age of Vijayanagara and the
Bahmanids, and the Coming
of the Portuguese (Circa 1350–1565)
The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms dominated India south of the
Vindhyas, for more than 200 years. They not only built magnificent capitals
and cities, and beautified them with many splendid buildings and promoted
arts and letters, but also provided for law and order and the development of
commerce and handicrafts. Thus, while the forces of disintegration gradually
triumphed in north India, south India and the Deccan had a long spell of
stable governments. This ended with the disintegration of the Bahmani
empire towards the end of the fifteenth century, and of the Vijayanagara
empire more than fifty years later, after its defeat in 1565 in the battle of
Bannihatti. Meanwhile, the Indian scene was transformed, first with the
arrival of the Portuguese in southern India and their attempt to dominate the
Indian seas, and second, with the advent of the Mughals in north India. The
coming of the Mughals paved the way for another spell of integration in
north India. The coming of the Portuguese marked the long era of
confrontation between the land-based Asian powers and the European
powers which dominated the seas.
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE—ITS FOUNDATION AND CONFLICT
WITH THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka who
belonged to a family of five brothers. According to a legend, they had been
the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later became ministers in
the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka. When Kampili was overrun
by Muhammad Tughlaq for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two brothers
Page 2


NINE
The Age of Vijayanagara and the
Bahmanids, and the Coming
of the Portuguese (Circa 1350–1565)
The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms dominated India south of the
Vindhyas, for more than 200 years. They not only built magnificent capitals
and cities, and beautified them with many splendid buildings and promoted
arts and letters, but also provided for law and order and the development of
commerce and handicrafts. Thus, while the forces of disintegration gradually
triumphed in north India, south India and the Deccan had a long spell of
stable governments. This ended with the disintegration of the Bahmani
empire towards the end of the fifteenth century, and of the Vijayanagara
empire more than fifty years later, after its defeat in 1565 in the battle of
Bannihatti. Meanwhile, the Indian scene was transformed, first with the
arrival of the Portuguese in southern India and their attempt to dominate the
Indian seas, and second, with the advent of the Mughals in north India. The
coming of the Mughals paved the way for another spell of integration in
north India. The coming of the Portuguese marked the long era of
confrontation between the land-based Asian powers and the European
powers which dominated the seas.
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE—ITS FOUNDATION AND CONFLICT
WITH THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka who
belonged to a family of five brothers. According to a legend, they had been
the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later became ministers in
the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka. When Kampili was overrun
by Muhammad Tughlaq for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two brothers
were imprisoned, converted to Islam, and appointed to deal with the
rebellions there. The Muslim governor of Madurai had already declared
himself independent, and the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the ruler of
Warangal were also trying to assert their independence. After a short time,
Harihara and Bukka forsook their new master and their new faith. At the
instance of their guru, Vidyaranya, they were re-admitted to Hinduism and
established their capital at Vijayanagar. Some modern scholars do not accept
the tradition of their conversion to Islam, but consider them to be among the
nayaks of Karnataka who had rebelled against Turkish rule.
The date of Harihara’s coronation is placed at 1336. At first, the young king
had to contend both with the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the sultan of
Madurai. The sultan of Madurai was ambitious. He had defeated the Hoysala
ruler, and executed him in a barbarous manner. The dissolution of the
Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their tiny
principality. By 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom had passed into the
hands of the Vijayanagara rulers. In this struggle, Harihara and Bukka were
aided by their brothers and by their relations who took up the administration
of the areas conquered by their efforts. The Vijayanagara kingdom was, thus,
a kind of a cooperative commonwealth at first. Bukka succeeded his brother
to the throne of Vijayanagara in 1356, and ruled till 1377.
The rising power of the Vijayanagara empire brought it into clash with
many powers both in the south and to the north. In the south, its main rivals
were the sultans of Madurai. The struggle between Vijayanagara and the
sultans of Madurai lasted for about four decades. By 1377, the Sultanat of
Madurai had been wiped out. The Vijayanagara empire then comprised the
whole of south India upto Rameshwaram, including the Tamil country as well
as that of the Cheras (Kerala). To the north, however, Vijayanagara faced a
powerful enemy in the shape of the Bahmani kingdom. The Bahmani
kingdom had come into existence in 1347. Its founder was Alauddin Hasan,
an Afghan adventurer. He had risen in the service of a Brahman, named
Gangu, and is, therefore, known as Hasan Gangu. After his coronation, he
assumed the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah. He is said to have traced
his descent from a half-mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah. But according to
a popular legend mentioned by Ferishta, the word Bahman Shah was meant
Page 3


NINE
The Age of Vijayanagara and the
Bahmanids, and the Coming
of the Portuguese (Circa 1350–1565)
The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms dominated India south of the
Vindhyas, for more than 200 years. They not only built magnificent capitals
and cities, and beautified them with many splendid buildings and promoted
arts and letters, but also provided for law and order and the development of
commerce and handicrafts. Thus, while the forces of disintegration gradually
triumphed in north India, south India and the Deccan had a long spell of
stable governments. This ended with the disintegration of the Bahmani
empire towards the end of the fifteenth century, and of the Vijayanagara
empire more than fifty years later, after its defeat in 1565 in the battle of
Bannihatti. Meanwhile, the Indian scene was transformed, first with the
arrival of the Portuguese in southern India and their attempt to dominate the
Indian seas, and second, with the advent of the Mughals in north India. The
coming of the Mughals paved the way for another spell of integration in
north India. The coming of the Portuguese marked the long era of
confrontation between the land-based Asian powers and the European
powers which dominated the seas.
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE—ITS FOUNDATION AND CONFLICT
WITH THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka who
belonged to a family of five brothers. According to a legend, they had been
the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later became ministers in
the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka. When Kampili was overrun
by Muhammad Tughlaq for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two brothers
were imprisoned, converted to Islam, and appointed to deal with the
rebellions there. The Muslim governor of Madurai had already declared
himself independent, and the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the ruler of
Warangal were also trying to assert their independence. After a short time,
Harihara and Bukka forsook their new master and their new faith. At the
instance of their guru, Vidyaranya, they were re-admitted to Hinduism and
established their capital at Vijayanagar. Some modern scholars do not accept
the tradition of their conversion to Islam, but consider them to be among the
nayaks of Karnataka who had rebelled against Turkish rule.
The date of Harihara’s coronation is placed at 1336. At first, the young king
had to contend both with the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the sultan of
Madurai. The sultan of Madurai was ambitious. He had defeated the Hoysala
ruler, and executed him in a barbarous manner. The dissolution of the
Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their tiny
principality. By 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom had passed into the
hands of the Vijayanagara rulers. In this struggle, Harihara and Bukka were
aided by their brothers and by their relations who took up the administration
of the areas conquered by their efforts. The Vijayanagara kingdom was, thus,
a kind of a cooperative commonwealth at first. Bukka succeeded his brother
to the throne of Vijayanagara in 1356, and ruled till 1377.
The rising power of the Vijayanagara empire brought it into clash with
many powers both in the south and to the north. In the south, its main rivals
were the sultans of Madurai. The struggle between Vijayanagara and the
sultans of Madurai lasted for about four decades. By 1377, the Sultanat of
Madurai had been wiped out. The Vijayanagara empire then comprised the
whole of south India upto Rameshwaram, including the Tamil country as well
as that of the Cheras (Kerala). To the north, however, Vijayanagara faced a
powerful enemy in the shape of the Bahmani kingdom. The Bahmani
kingdom had come into existence in 1347. Its founder was Alauddin Hasan,
an Afghan adventurer. He had risen in the service of a Brahman, named
Gangu, and is, therefore, known as Hasan Gangu. After his coronation, he
assumed the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah. He is said to have traced
his descent from a half-mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah. But according to
a popular legend mentioned by Ferishta, the word Bahman Shah was meant
to be a tribute to his Brahman patron. In any case, it is from this title that the
kingdom was called the Bahmani kingdom.
The interests of the Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahmani sultans clashed in
three separate and distinct areas: in the Tungabhadra doab, in the Krishna—
Godavari delta, and in the Marathwada country. The Tungabhadra doab was
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and consisted of
30,000 square miles. On account of its wealth and economic resources, it had
been the bone of contention between the western Chalukyas and the Cholas
in the earlier period, and between the Yadavas and the Hoysalas later on. The
struggle for the mastery of the Krishna—Godavari basin which was very
fertile and which, with its numerous ports, controlled the foreign trade of the
region was often linked up with the struggle for the Tungabhadra doab. In the
Maratha country, the main contention was for the control of the Konkan and
the areas which gave access to it. The Konkan was a narrow strip of land
between the Western Ghats and the sea. It was extremely fertile, and included
within it the port of Goa which was an important outlet for the products of
the region, as well as for the import of horses from Iran and Iraq. As has been
noted earlier, good quality horses were not bred in India. The import of
horses from Goa was, thus, of great importance to the southern states.
Military conflicts between the Vijayanagara and the Bahmani kingdom
were almost a regular feature and lasted as long as these kingdoms continued.
These military conflicts resulted in widespread devastation of the contested
areas and the neighbouring territories, and a considerable loss of life and
property. Both sides sacked and burnt towns and villages, imprisoned and
sold into slavery men, women and children, and committed various other
barbarities. Thus in 1367, when Bukka I assaulted the fortress of Mudkal in
the disputed Tungabhadra doab, he slaughtered the entire garrison, except
one man. When this news reached the Bahmani sultan, he was enraged and,
on the march, vowed that he would not sheath his sword till he had
slaughtered one hundred thousand Hindus in revenge. In spite of the rainy
season and the opposition of the Vijayanagara forces, he crossed the
Tungabhadra, the first time a Bahmani sultan had in person entered the
Vijayanagara territories. The Vijayanagara king was defeated in the battle and
retreated into the jungle. We hear, for the first time, of the use of artillery by
both sides during this battle. The victory of the Bahmani sultan was due to his
Page 4


NINE
The Age of Vijayanagara and the
Bahmanids, and the Coming
of the Portuguese (Circa 1350–1565)
The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms dominated India south of the
Vindhyas, for more than 200 years. They not only built magnificent capitals
and cities, and beautified them with many splendid buildings and promoted
arts and letters, but also provided for law and order and the development of
commerce and handicrafts. Thus, while the forces of disintegration gradually
triumphed in north India, south India and the Deccan had a long spell of
stable governments. This ended with the disintegration of the Bahmani
empire towards the end of the fifteenth century, and of the Vijayanagara
empire more than fifty years later, after its defeat in 1565 in the battle of
Bannihatti. Meanwhile, the Indian scene was transformed, first with the
arrival of the Portuguese in southern India and their attempt to dominate the
Indian seas, and second, with the advent of the Mughals in north India. The
coming of the Mughals paved the way for another spell of integration in
north India. The coming of the Portuguese marked the long era of
confrontation between the land-based Asian powers and the European
powers which dominated the seas.
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE—ITS FOUNDATION AND CONFLICT
WITH THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka who
belonged to a family of five brothers. According to a legend, they had been
the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later became ministers in
the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka. When Kampili was overrun
by Muhammad Tughlaq for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two brothers
were imprisoned, converted to Islam, and appointed to deal with the
rebellions there. The Muslim governor of Madurai had already declared
himself independent, and the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the ruler of
Warangal were also trying to assert their independence. After a short time,
Harihara and Bukka forsook their new master and their new faith. At the
instance of their guru, Vidyaranya, they were re-admitted to Hinduism and
established their capital at Vijayanagar. Some modern scholars do not accept
the tradition of their conversion to Islam, but consider them to be among the
nayaks of Karnataka who had rebelled against Turkish rule.
The date of Harihara’s coronation is placed at 1336. At first, the young king
had to contend both with the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the sultan of
Madurai. The sultan of Madurai was ambitious. He had defeated the Hoysala
ruler, and executed him in a barbarous manner. The dissolution of the
Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their tiny
principality. By 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom had passed into the
hands of the Vijayanagara rulers. In this struggle, Harihara and Bukka were
aided by their brothers and by their relations who took up the administration
of the areas conquered by their efforts. The Vijayanagara kingdom was, thus,
a kind of a cooperative commonwealth at first. Bukka succeeded his brother
to the throne of Vijayanagara in 1356, and ruled till 1377.
The rising power of the Vijayanagara empire brought it into clash with
many powers both in the south and to the north. In the south, its main rivals
were the sultans of Madurai. The struggle between Vijayanagara and the
sultans of Madurai lasted for about four decades. By 1377, the Sultanat of
Madurai had been wiped out. The Vijayanagara empire then comprised the
whole of south India upto Rameshwaram, including the Tamil country as well
as that of the Cheras (Kerala). To the north, however, Vijayanagara faced a
powerful enemy in the shape of the Bahmani kingdom. The Bahmani
kingdom had come into existence in 1347. Its founder was Alauddin Hasan,
an Afghan adventurer. He had risen in the service of a Brahman, named
Gangu, and is, therefore, known as Hasan Gangu. After his coronation, he
assumed the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah. He is said to have traced
his descent from a half-mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah. But according to
a popular legend mentioned by Ferishta, the word Bahman Shah was meant
to be a tribute to his Brahman patron. In any case, it is from this title that the
kingdom was called the Bahmani kingdom.
The interests of the Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahmani sultans clashed in
three separate and distinct areas: in the Tungabhadra doab, in the Krishna—
Godavari delta, and in the Marathwada country. The Tungabhadra doab was
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and consisted of
30,000 square miles. On account of its wealth and economic resources, it had
been the bone of contention between the western Chalukyas and the Cholas
in the earlier period, and between the Yadavas and the Hoysalas later on. The
struggle for the mastery of the Krishna—Godavari basin which was very
fertile and which, with its numerous ports, controlled the foreign trade of the
region was often linked up with the struggle for the Tungabhadra doab. In the
Maratha country, the main contention was for the control of the Konkan and
the areas which gave access to it. The Konkan was a narrow strip of land
between the Western Ghats and the sea. It was extremely fertile, and included
within it the port of Goa which was an important outlet for the products of
the region, as well as for the import of horses from Iran and Iraq. As has been
noted earlier, good quality horses were not bred in India. The import of
horses from Goa was, thus, of great importance to the southern states.
Military conflicts between the Vijayanagara and the Bahmani kingdom
were almost a regular feature and lasted as long as these kingdoms continued.
These military conflicts resulted in widespread devastation of the contested
areas and the neighbouring territories, and a considerable loss of life and
property. Both sides sacked and burnt towns and villages, imprisoned and
sold into slavery men, women and children, and committed various other
barbarities. Thus in 1367, when Bukka I assaulted the fortress of Mudkal in
the disputed Tungabhadra doab, he slaughtered the entire garrison, except
one man. When this news reached the Bahmani sultan, he was enraged and,
on the march, vowed that he would not sheath his sword till he had
slaughtered one hundred thousand Hindus in revenge. In spite of the rainy
season and the opposition of the Vijayanagara forces, he crossed the
Tungabhadra, the first time a Bahmani sultan had in person entered the
Vijayanagara territories. The Vijayanagara king was defeated in the battle and
retreated into the jungle. We hear, for the first time, of the use of artillery by
both sides during this battle. The victory of the Bahmani sultan was due to his
superior artillery and more efficient cavalry. The war dragged on for several
months, but the Bahmani sultan could neither capture the raja nor his capital.
In the meanwhile, wholesale slaughter of men, women and children went on.
Finally, both the side were exhausted, and decided to conclude a treaty. This
treaty restored the old position whereby the doab was shared between the
two. Even more important, it was agreed that since the two kingdoms would
remain neighbours for a long time, it was advisable to avoid cruelty in war. It
was, therefore, stipulated that in future wars, helpless and unarmed
inhabitants should not be slaughtered. Although this accord was not fully
implemented, it helped to make warfare in south India more humane.
Having strengthened its position in south India by eliminating the Sultanat
of Madurai, the Vijayanagara empire embarked upon a policy of expansion
towards the eastern sea coast under Harihara II (1377–1404). There were a
series of Hindu principalities in the region, the most notable being the Reddis
on the upper reaches of the delta, and the rulers of Warangal in the lower
reaches of the Krishna–Godavari delta. The rulers of Orissa to the north, as
well as the Bahmani sultans were also interested in this area. Although the
ruler ofWarangal had helped Hasan Gangu in his struggle against Delhi, his
successor had invaded Warangal and seized the stronghold of Kaulas and the
hill fort of Golconda. Vijayanagara had been too busy in the south to
intervene. The Bahmani sultan fixed Golconda as the boundary of his
kingdom and promised that neither he nor his successors would encroach
against Warangal any further. To seal this agreement, the ruler of Warangal
presented to the Bahmani sultan a throne set with valuable jewels. It is said
that it had been originally prepared as a present to Muhammad Tughlaq. The
alliance of the Bahmani kingdom and Warangal lasted for over 50 years, and
was a major factor in the inability of Vijayanagara to overrun the
Tungabhadra doab, or to stem the Bahmani offensive in the area.
The battles between Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis are described in great
detail by medieval writers. However, they are not of much historical
importance to us, the position of the two sides remaining more or less the
same, with the fortune of war swinging sometimes to one side, and sometimes
to the other. Harihara II was able to maintain his position in the face of the
Bahmani–Warangal combine. His greatest success was in wresting Belgaum
Page 5


NINE
The Age of Vijayanagara and the
Bahmanids, and the Coming
of the Portuguese (Circa 1350–1565)
The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms dominated India south of the
Vindhyas, for more than 200 years. They not only built magnificent capitals
and cities, and beautified them with many splendid buildings and promoted
arts and letters, but also provided for law and order and the development of
commerce and handicrafts. Thus, while the forces of disintegration gradually
triumphed in north India, south India and the Deccan had a long spell of
stable governments. This ended with the disintegration of the Bahmani
empire towards the end of the fifteenth century, and of the Vijayanagara
empire more than fifty years later, after its defeat in 1565 in the battle of
Bannihatti. Meanwhile, the Indian scene was transformed, first with the
arrival of the Portuguese in southern India and their attempt to dominate the
Indian seas, and second, with the advent of the Mughals in north India. The
coming of the Mughals paved the way for another spell of integration in
north India. The coming of the Portuguese marked the long era of
confrontation between the land-based Asian powers and the European
powers which dominated the seas.
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE—ITS FOUNDATION AND CONFLICT
WITH THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka who
belonged to a family of five brothers. According to a legend, they had been
the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later became ministers in
the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka. When Kampili was overrun
by Muhammad Tughlaq for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two brothers
were imprisoned, converted to Islam, and appointed to deal with the
rebellions there. The Muslim governor of Madurai had already declared
himself independent, and the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the ruler of
Warangal were also trying to assert their independence. After a short time,
Harihara and Bukka forsook their new master and their new faith. At the
instance of their guru, Vidyaranya, they were re-admitted to Hinduism and
established their capital at Vijayanagar. Some modern scholars do not accept
the tradition of their conversion to Islam, but consider them to be among the
nayaks of Karnataka who had rebelled against Turkish rule.
The date of Harihara’s coronation is placed at 1336. At first, the young king
had to contend both with the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the sultan of
Madurai. The sultan of Madurai was ambitious. He had defeated the Hoysala
ruler, and executed him in a barbarous manner. The dissolution of the
Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their tiny
principality. By 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom had passed into the
hands of the Vijayanagara rulers. In this struggle, Harihara and Bukka were
aided by their brothers and by their relations who took up the administration
of the areas conquered by their efforts. The Vijayanagara kingdom was, thus,
a kind of a cooperative commonwealth at first. Bukka succeeded his brother
to the throne of Vijayanagara in 1356, and ruled till 1377.
The rising power of the Vijayanagara empire brought it into clash with
many powers both in the south and to the north. In the south, its main rivals
were the sultans of Madurai. The struggle between Vijayanagara and the
sultans of Madurai lasted for about four decades. By 1377, the Sultanat of
Madurai had been wiped out. The Vijayanagara empire then comprised the
whole of south India upto Rameshwaram, including the Tamil country as well
as that of the Cheras (Kerala). To the north, however, Vijayanagara faced a
powerful enemy in the shape of the Bahmani kingdom. The Bahmani
kingdom had come into existence in 1347. Its founder was Alauddin Hasan,
an Afghan adventurer. He had risen in the service of a Brahman, named
Gangu, and is, therefore, known as Hasan Gangu. After his coronation, he
assumed the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah. He is said to have traced
his descent from a half-mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah. But according to
a popular legend mentioned by Ferishta, the word Bahman Shah was meant
to be a tribute to his Brahman patron. In any case, it is from this title that the
kingdom was called the Bahmani kingdom.
The interests of the Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahmani sultans clashed in
three separate and distinct areas: in the Tungabhadra doab, in the Krishna—
Godavari delta, and in the Marathwada country. The Tungabhadra doab was
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and consisted of
30,000 square miles. On account of its wealth and economic resources, it had
been the bone of contention between the western Chalukyas and the Cholas
in the earlier period, and between the Yadavas and the Hoysalas later on. The
struggle for the mastery of the Krishna—Godavari basin which was very
fertile and which, with its numerous ports, controlled the foreign trade of the
region was often linked up with the struggle for the Tungabhadra doab. In the
Maratha country, the main contention was for the control of the Konkan and
the areas which gave access to it. The Konkan was a narrow strip of land
between the Western Ghats and the sea. It was extremely fertile, and included
within it the port of Goa which was an important outlet for the products of
the region, as well as for the import of horses from Iran and Iraq. As has been
noted earlier, good quality horses were not bred in India. The import of
horses from Goa was, thus, of great importance to the southern states.
Military conflicts between the Vijayanagara and the Bahmani kingdom
were almost a regular feature and lasted as long as these kingdoms continued.
These military conflicts resulted in widespread devastation of the contested
areas and the neighbouring territories, and a considerable loss of life and
property. Both sides sacked and burnt towns and villages, imprisoned and
sold into slavery men, women and children, and committed various other
barbarities. Thus in 1367, when Bukka I assaulted the fortress of Mudkal in
the disputed Tungabhadra doab, he slaughtered the entire garrison, except
one man. When this news reached the Bahmani sultan, he was enraged and,
on the march, vowed that he would not sheath his sword till he had
slaughtered one hundred thousand Hindus in revenge. In spite of the rainy
season and the opposition of the Vijayanagara forces, he crossed the
Tungabhadra, the first time a Bahmani sultan had in person entered the
Vijayanagara territories. The Vijayanagara king was defeated in the battle and
retreated into the jungle. We hear, for the first time, of the use of artillery by
both sides during this battle. The victory of the Bahmani sultan was due to his
superior artillery and more efficient cavalry. The war dragged on for several
months, but the Bahmani sultan could neither capture the raja nor his capital.
In the meanwhile, wholesale slaughter of men, women and children went on.
Finally, both the side were exhausted, and decided to conclude a treaty. This
treaty restored the old position whereby the doab was shared between the
two. Even more important, it was agreed that since the two kingdoms would
remain neighbours for a long time, it was advisable to avoid cruelty in war. It
was, therefore, stipulated that in future wars, helpless and unarmed
inhabitants should not be slaughtered. Although this accord was not fully
implemented, it helped to make warfare in south India more humane.
Having strengthened its position in south India by eliminating the Sultanat
of Madurai, the Vijayanagara empire embarked upon a policy of expansion
towards the eastern sea coast under Harihara II (1377–1404). There were a
series of Hindu principalities in the region, the most notable being the Reddis
on the upper reaches of the delta, and the rulers of Warangal in the lower
reaches of the Krishna–Godavari delta. The rulers of Orissa to the north, as
well as the Bahmani sultans were also interested in this area. Although the
ruler ofWarangal had helped Hasan Gangu in his struggle against Delhi, his
successor had invaded Warangal and seized the stronghold of Kaulas and the
hill fort of Golconda. Vijayanagara had been too busy in the south to
intervene. The Bahmani sultan fixed Golconda as the boundary of his
kingdom and promised that neither he nor his successors would encroach
against Warangal any further. To seal this agreement, the ruler of Warangal
presented to the Bahmani sultan a throne set with valuable jewels. It is said
that it had been originally prepared as a present to Muhammad Tughlaq. The
alliance of the Bahmani kingdom and Warangal lasted for over 50 years, and
was a major factor in the inability of Vijayanagara to overrun the
Tungabhadra doab, or to stem the Bahmani offensive in the area.
The battles between Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis are described in great
detail by medieval writers. However, they are not of much historical
importance to us, the position of the two sides remaining more or less the
same, with the fortune of war swinging sometimes to one side, and sometimes
to the other. Harihara II was able to maintain his position in the face of the
Bahmani–Warangal combine. His greatest success was in wresting Belgaum
and Goa in the west from the Bahmani kingdom. He also sent an expedition
to north Sri Lanka.
After a period of confusion, Harihara II was succeeded by Deva Raya I
(1404–1422). Early in his reign, there was a renewed fight for the
Tungabhadra doab. He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler Firuz Shah, and he
had to pay ten lakhs of huns and pearls and elephants as an indemnity. He
also agreed to marry his daughter to the sultan, ceding to him in dowry
Bankapur in the doab in order to obviate all future dispute. The marriage was
celebrated with great pomp and show. When Firuz Shah Bahmani arrived
near Vijayanagara for the marriage, Deva Raya came out of the city and met
him with a show of great splendour. From the gate of the city to the palace,
which was a distance of ten km, the road was spread with cloths of gold,
velvet, satin and other rich stuffs. The two monarchs rode on horseback
together from the centre of the city square. The relations of Deva Raya joined
the cavalcade, marching on foot before the two kings. The festivities lasted
three days.
This was not the first political marriage of its type in south India. Earlier,
the ruler of Kherla in Gondwana had married his daughter to Firuz Shah
Bahmani in order to effect peace. It is said that this princess was the favourite
queen of Firuz. However, these marriages could not by themselves bring
about peace. The question of the Krishna–Godavari basin led to a renewed
conflict between Vijay inagara, the Bahmani kingdom and Orissa. Following
a confusion in the Reddi kingdom, Deva Raya entered into an alliance with
Warangal for partitioning the kingdom between them. Warangal’s defection
from the side of the Bahmani kingdom changed the balance of power in the
Deccan. Deva Raya was able to inflict a shattering defeat on Firuz Shah
Bahmani and annexed the entire Reddi territory up to the mouth of the
Krishna river.
Deva Raya I did not neglect the arts of peace. He constructed a dam across
the Tungabhadra so that he could bring the canals into the city to relieve the
shortage of water. It irrigated the neighbouring fields also, for we are told that
the canals increased his revenues by 350,000 pardaos. He also built a dam on
the river Haridra for irrigation purposes.
After some confusion, Deva Raya II (1425–1446), who is considered the