Pandyas : Economy, Society, Education and Literature | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Rise of the Second Pandyan Empire in South India

In the early 13th century A.D., the Pandyas, led by Maravarman Sundara Pandya, decisively defeated the Chola ruler and established the Pandyan rule. This period marked the beginning of the Second Pandyan Empire, which lasted until 1312 A.D. Various sources, including literary, epigraphic, and foreign accounts, provide insights into the conditions of the people during this time. Notably, Marco Polo visited the Pandya country in 1293 during the reign of Maravarman Kulasekara I (1268-1308), and Wassaf, a Muhammadan historian, also mentioned the Pandyan Empire.

Social Conditions:

• The social structure of the Pandyan Empire was characterized by a rigid caste system, with various castes and sub-castes playing significant roles in society. However, the period was also marked by religious strife.

The Brahmins:

• The Brahmins held a prestigious position in society and were often granted lands and donations. The Pandyan rulers allocated certain villages for their settlement, and Maravarman Kulasekaran I established many Brahmin settlements known as Sundarapandya Chaturvedi mangalam. Brahmins were appointed to high government positions, including ministers and army commanders.

The Vellalas:

• The Vellala community was prominent in trade and held significant positions in society and government. They were also involved in conflicts with the Brahmins at times. The Vellalas, known as Bhoomi Puthirar and Nattu Makkal, had their organization called Chitirameli Perianattar.

The Nagarathars:

• The Nagarathar community, believed to have migrated from the Chola country and also known as Nattukkottai Chetties, were traders and deeply religious. They dedicated a portion of their income to religious causes.

Others:

• Besides the Brahmins, Vellalas, and Nagarathars, various other communities lived in the Pandyan Empire. The Parayas, for instance, played a role in disseminating royal messages, while untouchability was a prevalent and unfortunate aspect of society.

Position of Women

• The condition of women did not show improvement; they remained in a subordinate position. Women were not granted equal property rights, and the expectation of celibacy was placed solely on them.
• Despite these challenges, women were allowed to pursue higher education, and many became learned scholars. Some women dedicated themselves to temples, earning the title Devaradiyars.

Marriage:

• Marriage held significant importance in society. During the marriage ceremony, the bride and groom would circumambulate a sacred fire and step on a stone slab, known as Ammi, as part of the customary practices.
• Marriages were typically arranged by parents, and practices such as polygamy were observed among the wealthy, including kings who married multiple wives.
• The Sati system, where a widow would self-immolate on her husband’s funeral pyre, was also present in society.

Beliefs and Social Attitudes of the Tamils as Observed by Marco Polo

• Marco Polo, a renowned medieval traveler, spent several months in South India. He described the king of Kayal as possessing vast treasures and wearing an impressive array of rich jewels. The king maintained a grand state, administered his kingdom with equity, and treated merchants and foreigners with great favor, making Kayal a bustling hub of trade.
• According to Marco Polo, Kayal was a major port where ships from the west, including those from Hormos, Kis, Aden, and all of Arabia, arrived laden with goods for sale, contributing to the city’s vibrant commerce.
• He noted the Pandya country’s reputation for producing pearls and provided an accurate account of the fisheries, from which the king derived significant revenue.
• Marco Polo also remarked on social practices such as Sati and the custom allowing a condemned criminal to sacrifice himself to a god of his choice. He observed the practice of rubbing houses with cow dung and the widespread use of betel leaves mixed with aromatic spices.
• He pointed out that astrology and the advice of diviners skilled in various forms of magic and geomancy influenced daily activities. The use of Tambulam, a mixture of betel leaves and aromatic spices, was also prevalent.

Education and Literature

• The educational institutions in the Pandya Empire included Ghatiga, Vidhyasthana, and Salai. The Pandyas demonstrated their support for education through donations and grants. Educational activities were also carried out by Mutts. The Saiva Mutts promoted education in places like Madurai, Tirunelveli, Sakkottai, and Aruviyur, while the Vaishnava Mutts were active in Alagar Koil and Thirukurungudi. Some temples had libraries, and there were indications of military education as well. Overall, the Pandyas played a significant role in the advancement of education through their patronage.
• During the reign of the Pandyas, a notable number of literary works were produced. Nambi authored the 'Thiruvillayadal Purana', and poet Adi Devan composed 'Kangeyan Pillai Tamil'. The Sivagnana Siddhiyar was written by Arunandi Sivachariar, and Senavarayar penned a commentary on Tolkappiam. This period also saw Parimel Alagar writing a commentary on Tirukkural, while Poyyamoli authored Thanjai Vanan Kovai. The excellence of Tamil literature during this time can be attributed to the contributions of religious saints.
• The 'Unmai-vilakkam' (Explanation of the Truth) by Manavasa Gangadanadar of Tiruvadi is a straightforward manual on the doctrine, aligned with the essence of the Agamas. Umapathi Sivacharya authored eight of the fourteen Saiva Siddhantha sastras, critiquing other creeds and exploring subtle distinctions within Saivism. Notable authors from this period include Manavala Perumal, Vedanta Deshikar, and Manavala Mamunigal. Tamil flourished, and Sanskrit also received patronage from the rulers.

Economic Condition

The economic condition improved during the reign of the Pandyas, with accounts from Marco Polo and Wassaf describing brisk trade, particularly at Kayalpatinam, where goods were imported and exported.

Agriculture

Agriculture received significant attention from the Pandyas. The rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparani fertilized the Pandyan country. Many dry lands were converted into cultivable land. Through land tenure, peasants without their own land cultivated crops.Devadana lands belonged to temples, and land tax was a major source of revenue for the country. The government facilitated irrigation by digging tanks and channels to promote agricultural production. The important tanks included:

• Vasudeva Grand Canal
• Sri Vallabha Canal
• Prakrama Pandyan Ground Canal

A variyam known as Eri Variyam was responsible for the maintenance of the tanks.

Industry

In Madurai, fine-quality cotton cloths were produced, with the Kaikolas engaged in weaving. Oil crushing remained a hereditary industry, and salt was produced in coastal areas. Pearl fishing was prominent in Korkai and Tuticorin, with the Paradavas involved in fishing. Crops like cotton and sugar were essential for producing cloth and sugar, with sugar made from Palmerah. Other industries included pottery, carpentry, and blacksmithing.

Trade

• Internal trade was thriving, with the Vaishyas, a trading community, actively engaged in trade. Traders sold cloth, groceries, salt, oil, pearls, and other goods. There were both retail and wholesale merchants. Commercial goods included cotton and silk dresses, pepper, spices, and pearls. A chamber of commerce existed to protect and promote trade.

Foreign Trade:

• Maritime activities flourished under the Pandyas, with trade contacts established with countries such as China, Arabia, Turkey, Persia, and Europe. Arabian horses were imported, with substantial payments made to Arabian traders for horse purchases.Kayalpatinam emerged as an important port. 
• Pandya ruler Kulasekara Pandyan sent an envoy under Jamaludin to China in 1280, followed by another envoy in 1282, carrying presents like pearls, fine clothes, and ornaments. The Chinese ruler was pleased and sent his envoy to the Pandyan country, establishing good relations and cultural contacts with China.

Coins

• Gold was the primary medium of exchange, with coins like Kalanju and Kanam. Pandyan coins were discovered in various places, with Korkai serving as a minting site for the Pandyas.

Religious Condition

Saivism:

• Saivism spread significantly in the Pandya country, aided by the Nayanmars, who not only promoted the religion but also contributed to Tamil literature. The Saiva mutts played a crucial role in spreading Saivism and education. Notable Nayanmars include Ninra Seer Nedumaran, Kulachiraiyar, and Mangayarkarasi, who worked through Saiva mutts to promote the religion.

Vaishnavism:

• Vaishnavism also gained traction during this period, thanks to the efforts of Vaishnava saints. Several Vaishnava mutts were established, with the heads called Jeeyar. Important mutts included Ahobila Mutt and Vanamalai Mutt, which not only spread Vaishnavism but also the Bhakti cult. Saints like Mathurakavi, Nammalwar, Periyalwar, and Andal were born in the Pandya country.

The Jainism and the Buddhism:

• Jainism and Buddhism, which had spread in the Tamil country, lost influence during the Second Pandyan Empire. The Bhakti movement and rulers like Koon Pandyan and his descendants took measures against Jainism and Buddhism.

Other Religions:

• Islam and Christianity spread in the country, with some people embracing these religions due to the rigidity of the caste system and untouchability.

Religious Toleration:

• Sundarapandya II, despite building the greatest Saiva temple at Chidambaram and the greatest Vaishnava temple at Srirangam, also generously endowed Jaina Pallis. Generally, the Pandyas were known for their religious tolerance.