Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism, Fascism, Gandhism & Feminism-2 | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Marxism

• Karl Marx was an intellectual who developed influential political dogmas. He was the first philosopher to bring together the various elements of socialist thought into both a coherent world view and an emotional principle of struggle. 
• Along with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), with whom he shared an unmatched partnership, Marx dissected 19 the century capitalism as scientific socialism or communism. 
• Karl Marx is considered as originator of Modern Communism. The theory of communism be indebted its birth to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel. 
• According to the theory of communism, the only practical thing was to obtain mastery over the governing laws of society. 
• Besides this, Karl Marx and Engel wanted to know the causes of economic changes in human society. They also wanted to discover what further changes are required. They established that the changes in human society were not the least accidental like changes in external nature. 

Marx inherited and combined three legacies in his theoretical groundwork:

• German philosophy
• French political thought
• English economics

Historical materialism:

• Historical materialism is the use of the principles of dialectical materialism to the development of society. Marx applied dialectical materialism to the social world consisting of economic production and exchange. In his Socialism: Utopian and Scientific, Engels has defined historical materialism as a theory which maintains that the ultimate cause which determines the whole course of human history is the economic development of society. 
• The whole course of human history in explicated in terms of changes occurring in the mode of production and exchange. 
• Beginning from primitive communism, the mode of production has passed through three stages. Slavery, feudalism and capitalism and the consequent division of society into three distinct classes (Slave- master, self-baron and proletariat-capitalist) and the struggle of these classes against one another. 
• Marx borrowed such concepts as civil society and property from the Hegelian system and set them in a revolutionary relationship to the concept of the state. Hegel confronts civil society as a sphere of materialism and counterposes it to the state as sphere of idealism. 
• On the contrary, Marx maintains that relations as well as forms of state are to be grabbed neither from themselves, nor from the general development of human mind but rather they have their roots in the material conditions of life. 
• As a consequence, Hegel stated that the real world is only the external phenomenal form of the idea, while for Marx, the ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by human mind and interpreted into forms of thought. 
• In other words, while in the Hegelian scheme, human consciousness determines social existence in the Marxian scheme. It is the social existence that determines their consciousness.

Theory of surplus value

• The theory of surplus value is conferred by Marx thoroughly in his famous work 'Das Capital' which was considered as the Gospel or Bible of socialism. 
• The dogma of surplus value is the most relevant theoretical contribution of Karl Marx. The theory of surplus value is imbedded in the labour theory of value holds that labour spent by the labourer in the production of the commodity is the sole criterion for determining its value. 
• Marx acknowledges that human labour cannot create value by itself alone. It uses instruments of production which are owned by the capitalists.

Class struggle

• Class struggle is elucidated as the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to competing socioeconomic interests and desires between people of different classes.
• Class conflict may emerge in various forms that include direct violence, such as wars fought for resources and cheap labour, indirect violence, such as deaths from poverty, starvation, illness or unsafe working conditions, coercion, such as the threat of losing a job or the pulling of an important investment, and ideologically, such as with books and articles promoting capitalism.

Criticism of political thoughts of Karl Marx

• Marxism has been exposed to severe disapproval from various angles. Along with Plato and Hegel, Marx was viewed as an opponent of the open society. Marxism appealed to have studied the laws of history on the basis of which it supported total sweeping and radical changes. 
• Not only was it impossible to have first-hand knowledge based on some set of laws that governed society and human individuals, but Karl Popper also prohibited Marx's social engineering as hazardous for it treated individuals as submissive to the interests of the whole.
• Marx's vision of a new social order in which there will be neither alienation nor exploitation no classes, no class antagonism, no state is highly interesting. Prof. Sabine spoke that Marxism a 'Utopia but a generous and humane one'. Harrington represented the contemporary radical view of Marx as being an excellent critic of capitalism but unable to provide a thorough alternative to it. 
• A democratic system was totally alien to his temperament in spite of his appeal for democratization of social forces.
• Centralization of power and absence of checks and balances on absolute power were themselves unfriendly to human freedom and liberation.

Fascism

• Fascism is not regarded as ideology, it is regarded as ‘propaganda’. Fascism is not a coherent, systematic school of thought, it is considered as hodge-podge of ideologies. Whatever fascist rulers found convenient, they incorporated in the ideology of fascism. Hence it is a type of political opportunism. 
• According to Gandhi, fascism is the worst manifestation of modernity, the so-called Machiavellianism. It means complete disregard of ethics, pure power politics. It is to be noted that Gandhi made no difference in Hitler’s Nazism and British imperialism.
• The term fascism is used to denote the type of political systems which have emerged in Europe e.g. in Italy, Germany, Portugal, Spain and some countries outside Europe like Japan and Argentina during inter-war period. 
• There are various forms of fascism like fascism (Italy), Nazism (Germany), Salazarism (Portugal), Peronism (Argentina). There may be some variations e.g. fascist emphasized on primacy of state, Nazism emphasized on primacy of race.

Ideological Basis of Fascism

Fascists lack a coherent ideology, they have borrowed from different scholars, manipulated their thoughts to justify their agenda. They have borrowed from following scholars.

• Plato- leader as a philosopher king, unquestionable obedience. State is a family and all are expected to sacrifice at present in search of some utopia, the perfect state.
• Machiavelli – politics is power. Ends justify means. Nothing superior than national interest. Imperialism.
•  Hobbes – justification of absolute authority of the state.
• Rosseau – the concept of general will that general will is always right and man should be forced to be free.
• Hegel – state is a march of God on earth. Real freedom consists in obeying the state.
• Nietzsche – Nietzsche gave the concept of superman. Fascist projected leader as a superman.
• Bergson – Bergson has given the concept of vitality. According to Bergson, we achieve anything because of passion, passion is a living force, reason stops us from doing what we can achieve. Passions have priority over cold-blooded reason.
• Herder – Herder gave the theory of cultural nationalism.
• Sorel – REFLECTIONS ON VIOLENCE. Sorel suggested that in politics myths play most important role. He justified the role of war and violence in politics.
• Charles Maurus – He gave the concept of integral nationalism.

The causes giving rise to fascism

There are two theories on the causes.

1st theory

• It is given by Nolte. According to this theory, fascism is the product of circumstances. e.g. There were political economic problems in these countries which gave rise to such leaders.
• It is suggested that fascism emerges when democracy is introduced in the societies which are not democratic.
• Political Parties, fail to form stable coalitions. Lack of stability creates insecurity and people get attracted towards authoritarian leaders. Thus certain circumstances give opportunity to the demagogic leaders to come to power by fooling people.
•  It is to be noted that, both fascism and Nazism established themselves through the democratic and constitutional means.

2nd theory

• According to this school, fascism is rooted in human nature.
• Eric Fromm has given the concept of ‘fear of freedom’.
• It is wrong to believe that ordinary people like freedom. On the contrary they fear freedom. Freedom is responsible for developing the sense of insecurity in man. Since there is a fear or insecurity in man, man will always be attracted towards strong leaders. This gives opportunity to the leaders to become dictatorial.
• According to Eric Fromm, circumstance may aggravate the insecurity but roots of fascism are present in human nature. There is a strong attraction towards such leaders. We should not forget that people did not reject fascist leaders, they continued to have mass support. They had to be defeated. Hence, there is always a possibility of rise of fascism.

Analysis of Fascism

• According to Karl Mannheim, there is a sociology of knowledge. It means every theory has its social base. If liberalism is an ideology of the middle class, socialism is an ideology of workers, fascism is an ideology of elite class.
• ‘Fascism’ has become a ‘bad word’. In politics, fascism is used against the opponents, nobody prefers to be known as fascists. Liberals link fascism with socialism or communism. e.g. Western scholars like Karl Popper and Hannah Arendt considered fascism and communism are the varieties of the totalitarianism of 20th century.
• On the other hand, anti-capitalists scholars like Laski calls fascism as ‘last attempt by capitalism to protect itself.’ Thus fascism is seen as a philosophy of capitalism. Capitalism is liberal and democratic in normal situations. It becomes authoritarian when it faces crisis.
•  Thus fascism is considered as democracy turning into mobocracy.
• Since the support for fascist rulers came from the lower middle class, it is also called as the ideology of ‘center right’.

Feminism

• Feminism is also a meta-ideology (it has internal debate). There are different schools of feminism, contradicting each other. However all feminists share the concern about the unequal status of women and aims to give a life of dignity.

Origin of feminism

We can trace the origin of feminism in the western world to Plato, who believed that women do not suffer from any disqualification with respect to becoming the rulers.

Feminism has evolved in the form of waves

1st wave (Liberal & Socialist Feminism)

Liberal Feminism

• Liberalism stands for civil and political rights. Hence liberal feminists believed that if women get similar civil and political rights like right to vote, right to stand in elections, their subordination will end. Mary Wollstonecraft is considered as the mother of feminism. 
• She belonged to the time of French revolution. Like the charter of rights of men, she presented a charter on the rights of women. 
• However the leaders at that time paid no attention. Later on, in Britain and in USA, Suffragettes movement started, demanding right to vote for women.

Socialist Feminism

• Marx has not discussed the issue of liberation of women. It was Friedrich Engels  in his book ORIGIN OF FAMILY, PRIVATE PROPERTY AND STATE discussed the subordination of women because of the institution of private property. 
• He held that women should participate in communist revolution because once capitalism will end, women will be liberated automatically.
•  Even Engels considered liberation of women as secondary and will happen automatically once communism comes.
• Lenin had very progressive approach towards women. Lenin included a woman Alexandra Kollontai as a minister in his cabinet. There was very significant improvement in the status of women in USSR under Lenin in comparison to the western countries.
• However, when Stalin came to power, he reversed the process in USSR. He started distributing medals with the title ‘mother heroines’ to the women which had given birth to more number of children.

2nd Wave (Radical Feminism)

• Radical feminists believe that women problems are different from the problems faced by men. They suggest to develop feminists terminology, feminists literature. 
• Radical feminism revolves around the concept of gender, patriarchy, belief that ‘personal is political’ and differentiated equality/citizenship.

Prominent scholars of Radical feminism

Betty Friedan

• She belonged to USA. She has conducted an interview on ‘white American women.’ Her sample included married women belonging to well to-do families. She wanted to know the life of this segment and whether they are satisfied with their life.
• In the survey, she found that despite coming from well off families, white and married yet they were not completely satisfied with their lives. Women felt that they are missing something in the life but they were not in a position to tell what is the problem.
• Betty Friedan described the problem as, the problem which has no name.  She came to the conclusion that patriarchy is the reason behind the lack of satisfaction. Thus even when equal rights are given to the women, they will not be able to get the similar level of satisfaction like men. The problem of women are different from men and hence require different solutions. Women require the end of patriarchy.
• She has analyzed how patriarchy is perpetuated. Patriarchy is perpetuated in the society by creating myths with respect to women. These myths or so called essential women qualities are responsible for the perpetuation of patriarchy.

Simone de Beauvoir

• She belonged to France and was influenced by the French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre. Sartre has given the philosophy of existentialism. A philosophy of freedom or liberation. It goes beyond liberalism.
• The famous statement of Sartre is “existence is prior to essence.” Existence is ‘what we are’, in this context, we are subject, having the consciousness of our own. Essence is the identity which is given to us by others. In this state, we are objects. Existence should have primacy over essence. Only then man can be free in true sense.
• Sartre believes that religion is responsible for essentialism. In religion, it is suggested that the essence of men is different than that of women. It is decided by God. It reduced man to the status of the object of God. Religion also tells that God will punish if we do not act according to the God. It seems as if we are robots and God has remote control.

Eco feminism

Basic premise

• Both nature and women are exploited by men.  
• Women are closer to nature, by nature.  
• Nature is woman.  
• Women are the worst sufferers of environmental degradation because their life is more dependent on nature. 
• Only women can protect environment. 
• For any agenda of sustainable development, empowerment of women should be at the center. This has been recognized in agenda 21 as well as agenda 2030.

Why women to be given centrality with respect to environmental protection?

• Nature of women – men are consumerists and women are conservationists.  ii. the life of women is more dependent on nature. It is to be noted that women have always been at the forefront in any environmental movement. Even Indian environmental movement has been started by women. (Chipko movement).
• Exponents of eco-feminism: Eugene Dubois, Mary Daly (GYN ECOLOGY), Vandana Shiva.

Criticism

Radical feminists criticize eco-feminist because they also base their thought in eternal feminism.

 Gandhism

• Social and political ideologies of Gandhi ji is multidimensional.
• His political philosophy was a deep-seated departure from the past in the sense that it was neither constitutional loyalist of the Moderates nor extremism of the revolutionary terrorists.
• In his speech of Indian nationalism, he sought to incorporate the emergent constituencies of nationalist politics that remained peripheral in the past era.
• Gandhi was the only effective nationalist leader who truly attempted to go beyond the class conflicts by creating a method which for the first time, brought about the national aggregation of an all India character.
• His social and political ideas were the consequence of his serious engagement with issues reflective of India's peculiar socio-economic circumstances.
• Gandhi concurrently launched movements not only against the British rule but also against the terrible social structures, customs, norms and values, justified in the name of Indian's ancient traditions.
• Therefore, Gandhi's thought is neither purely political nor absolutely social, but a complex combination of the two.
• Gandhian philosophy was a thoughtful engagement with modernity and its drawbacks.
• Against the troubles of industrialisation, materialism and selfish pursuits, Gandhiji suggested swaraj, swadeshi, trusteeship and a minimal state vested only with co-coordinative powers.
• He was a genuinely a religious man.
• This standpoint shaped his politics his economic ideas and his view of society.
• However, the religious approach that he absorbed was significantly different from other religious man.
• He accepts the inner oneness of all existence in the cosmic spirit, and saw all living beings as representatives of the everlasting divine reality.
• Gandhiji believed that man's ultimate goal in life was self- realisation.
• According to him, Self-realisation meant seeing God face to face, i.e., realising the absolute truth or, knowing oneself.
• He believed that it could not be attained unless man identified himself with the whole of mankind.
• This necessarily involved participation in politics.
• According to Gandhi, man's ultimate aim is the realisation of God and all his activities social political religious have to be directed by the ultimate aim of the vision of God.
• It is only through the means of self-purification that self-realisation can be attained.
• The fasts, prayers and works of service that he undertook were all directed towards such an end.
• In his autobiography, Gandhiji stated that self-realisation required self-purification as its ethical foundation.
• Men's moral life flows from such a search into this oneself and express itself in outward activity of fellowship and concern to others.
• This moral outlook is mainstay of Gandiji's political viewpoint even as his ethics has for its foundation in his metaphysical principles.
• According to Gandhiji, the moral discipline of the individual is the most important means of social construction.

Gandhian Moral Principles:

• Truth
• Non-violence
• Non-stealing
• Non-possession
• Celibacy

Significance:

• Adherence to these principles purifies man.
• Enables the pursuit of self-realization.

Techniques of Political Struggle:

1. Satyagraha
2. Non-violence

Moralities of Gandhian Techniques:

• Satyagraha and Non-violence (Ahimsa) are fundamental.
• From his South African experiment to the Rowlatt Act agitation, Satyagraha was central to his efforts.
• Post-1919 anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha, non-violence became integral to Satyagraha.
• Ahimsa influenced Satyagraha but was not initially emphasized as a crucial component.

Gandhi’s Perspective on Ahimsa:

• Ahimsa means utmost selflessness.
• Self-realization requires behavior that assures others of their safety.
• Non-violence extends beyond non-killing to a positive sense of love.
• Emphasizes loving wrong-doers but opposing wrong actions.
• Opposed indifferent responses to wrongs and injustice.
• Advocated severing relations with wrong-doers to fight injustice.

Satyagraha and Ahimsa:

• Satyagraha always encompassed ahimsa, although its role was explicitly defined post-1919.
• Post-1919, Gandhi emphasized ahimsa’s role in political mobilization, referencing ancient scriptures.
• Prepared for a pan-Indian non-cooperation movement where ahimsa was pivotal.
• Experiments in Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad showcased the integration of ahimsa in Gandhian anti-imperialism.

Gandhian Doctrine of Satyagraha:

• Satyagraha is a defense against injustice rooted in truth.
• Means 'Truth force,' exercising pure soul-force against injustice, oppression, and exploitation.
• Characteristics of soul-force: suffering and trust.
• Truth is synonymous with soul or spirit, known as soul force.
• Excludes violence as man cannot know absolute truth.
• Later, Gandhi stated, 'Truth is God,' emphasizing life's pursuit of Truth or God.
• Satyagraha involves holding on to truth through moral and non-insolent means.
• Appeals to the reasoning of the opponent, not imposing one’s will but persuading.

Characteristics of Satyagraha:

• A moral defense without ill-feeling towards the rival.
• A nonviolent tactic, requiring love for the enemy.
• Strengthens the opponent morally rather than abating them.
• A tool for the brave with a constructive approach.
• A satyagrahi is always truthful, morally upright, non-violent, without hatred, and dedicated to service.
• Truth can only be achieved through non-violence, which is a positive condition of love.
• Non-violence strives for non-injury in words and deeds.

Role of a Satyagrahi:

• Cooperates for the common good, not out of fear of punishment.
• Engages in a battle without bitterness, hatred, or injury to the opponent.
• Accepts suffering as a consequence of resistance.
• Suffers for conscience as an individual and for conscientious disobedience as a citizen.
• Invites suffering upon himself without seeking mercy.

The following rules must be followed in satyagraha:

• Self-reliance at all times.
• Initiative in the hands of the satyagrahis.
• Proliferation of the objective, strategy and tactics of the campaign.
• Reduction of demands to a minimum consistent with Truth.
• Liberal advancement of the movement through steps and stages- direct action only when all other efforts to achieve an honourable settlement have been exhausted.
• Investigation of weakness within the satyagraha group- no sign of impatience, discouragement or breakdown of non-violent attitude.
• Persistent search for avenues of cooperation with the adversary on honourable terms by winning over the opponent by helping him. There must be sincerity to achieve an agreement with rather than triumph over the adversary.
• Rejection to surrender essentials in negotiation and there must be no compromise on basic principles.
• Insistence on full agreement on fundamentals before accepting a settlement.

Steps in a Satyagraha Recommended by Gandhi:

1. Negotiation and Arbitration
2. Preparation of the Group for Direct Action - Exercise in self-discipline.
3. Agitation - Demonstrations such as mass meetings, parades, and slogan-shouting.
4. Issuing of an Ultimatum
5. Economic Boycott and Forms of Strike - Picketing, dharna, non-violent labor strike, and general strike.
6. Non-cooperation
7. Civil Disobedience
8. Usurping of the Functions of Government

Techniques of Satyagraha:

• Non-cooperation
• Civil Disobedience
• Hijrat
• Fasting
• Strike

Gandhi’s Beliefs and Recommendations:

1. Non-cooperation:

   • Subjugation and exploitation occur due to people's cooperation.
   • If people refuse to cooperate, the government cannot function effectively.
   • Forms include hartals and picketing.
   • Hartals: Stopping work as a protest to capture the attention of people and the government. Should be voluntary and non-violent.
   • Picketing: Should avoid coercion, pressure, rudeness, burning of images, and hunger strikes.

2. Civil Disobedience:

   • A powerful, bloodless substitute for armed revolt.
   • Can be individual or mass civil disobedience.
   • Complete civil disobedience involves refusal to obey all state laws and is considered more dangerous than armed rebellion due to the power of innocent suffering.

3. Hijrat:

   • Voluntary exile from one's place of residence.
   • For those who feel besieged and cannot maintain self-respect in a particular place without true non-violence or the capacity to defend themselves.

4. Fasting:

   • Seen as a powerful weapon, to be used only against those bound by close personal affection.
   • Requires purity of mind, discipline, humility, and faith.
   • Stimulates the conscience and motivates loving hearts to action.

5. Strike:

   • A method of purification and voluntary suffering to convert the erring opponent.
   • Strikes should not involve class war but rather see industry as a joint enterprise of labor and capital, both as trustees.
   • Strikers should clearly propose their demands.

Satyagraha vs. Passive Resistance:

• Passive Resistance:

  • Secures rights through personal sorrow and social force.
  • Involves the use of force.
  • An all-sided sword blessing both user and opponent without bloodshed.

• Satyagraha:

  • Not physical force but soul force, relying on self-sacrifice.
  • Opposed to internal violence, prejudice, and separatism.
  • Not just political but also social and economic.
  • Aimed at organizing mass protests with defined duties and responsibilities for participants.
  • Constantly seeking to transform individuals by appreciating human ethical values and justifying them with religion.

Non-violence (Ahimsa):

• Historical Roots:

  • Practiced in Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Judaism, Jainism, and Buddhism.
  • Ahimsa first mentioned in the Chandogya Upanishad and associated with Jainism.

• Gandhi’s Interpretation:

  • Central to all religions, synonymous with truth, and intertwined with non-violence.
  • Non-violence is a positive condition of love and self-sacrifice.
  • Three levels of non-violence:
    1. Enlightened non-violence of the brave, adopted by inner conviction.
    2. Non-violence of the weak, adopted as expediency and policy.
    3. Passive violence of the coward, which Gandhi opposed.

Gandhism:

• Not an organized political philosophy but a transformation of human life through self-suffering love.
• Emphasizes peace, modesty, gentleness, and respect for others' religious views.
• Forms the moral foundation of socialism and democracy.
• Relevant to modern world issues like militarism, violence, and power politics.

Gandhism Ideology in Contemporary Period

• Gandhian democracy is still relevant in India. It is clear from the 73rd amendment of Indian constitution.
• That amendment is related only with rural administration of India.
• One noteworthy provision of that amendment is decentralization of power up to the rural level.
• That amendment has already been implemented in India.
• Gandhian systems are mostly following by the Indian people to fulfill different demands.
• Gandhi's philosophy of life is applicable to all humanity.
• He did not reserve any afford in serving India and humanity and sacrificed even his life.
• He was a forager, a manual labour, an economist, a politician, a religious man, a lover of humanity and above all a Mahatma.
• Gandhi's life and ideologies are great message to humankind.
• In Gandhian creed, the first principle which guided all his thoughts and activities is the complete unity and integrity of body, mind and soul in the individual human being.
• Gandhiji never tried to speak that the body should be controlled by the mind and the mind by the soul.
• He attached to physical health and well-being as much importance as to plain and logical thinking or moral responsibility.
• It has been observed that the greatest attainment of Gandhi was the spiritualization of politics.
• This is unquestionably true; but he had no faith in religiousness by itself as an abstract virtue.
• The second principle of Gandhian viewpoint is that all social action should be governed by the same simple set of moral values, of which the main elements are selflessness, non-attachment, nonviolence and active service.
• He believed that the development of a man's personality is balanced to his faith in and practice of these virtues.
• His third conviction was that no society, state or any other institution has any worth or importance apart from its part in contributing to the development of the individuals of which it is composed.
• Gandhiji had firm belief that means are at least as important as, and often even more important than, ends.
• According to Gandhi, faith in God is the groundwork of all moral values.
• He never defined God and was prepared to allow every person to have his own idea of God.
• To summarize, Gandhism is a dominant political ideology that made immense transformation in the arena of political science.
• Gandhi is one of the great activist-theoreticians of the twentieth century.
• Gandhism represents a humanitarian world view.