Political Parties & Pressure Groups | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Political Parties

• Political parties are a special form of social organisation. “A political party is a team of men seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election” (Antony Downs,).
• The Italian scholar Giovanni Sartori defined a party as: “any political group identified by an official label that presents at elections, and is capable of placing through election, candidates for public office.”
• Political party is a group of people who come together to contest election and hold power in the government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the collective good. Since there can be different views on what is good for all, parties try to persuade people why their policies are better than others. They seek to implement these policies by winning popular support through these elections.
• Even if these definitions demonstrate some difference in the understanding of political parties, they all emphasize the participation in elections and the interest to gain public offices and mandates as essential elements that characterise political parties. They must meet certain criteria which can be summarized as follows.
• In other words we can define Political party as an organization of people interested in and working to control or influence the power structure of a community or society in a way they regard as best for their interest and presumably for the best interest of the community.

Criteria for Identifying Political Parties

• A political party aims to influence the formation of political opinions and seeks to have a broad political impact over a longer period and a wider region, rather than being focused on local issues or single topics.
• A party is an association of citizens with individual memberships and must have a minimum number of members to demonstrate the seriousness of its goals and the likelihood of success.
• A party must show a commitment to participating in the political representation of the people during elections, distinguishing itself from unions, NGOs, and other initiatives that do not take on political responsibilities for larger sectors and do not participate in elections.
• A party should be an independent and permanent organization, not created for a single election and then disbanded.
• A party must be willing to appear in public.
• While a party does not need to win a seat in parliament, it must meet all the other criteria.

Why Do Political Parties Exist?

Within any society, there are various opinions, needs, expectations, and views on daily issues, as well as fundamental questions about social organization, norms, and procedures. There is no single common will or predetermined common good; instead, there are competing interests that often clash. To peacefully mediate these conflicts, the formation of political views must occur through an open debate process among different opinions, requiring a minimum level of common conviction.

• This idea of conflicting interests in society, which are considered legitimate, is known as pluralism or the "competition theory" of democracy. According to this theory, political opinion formation in a pluralistic society happens through competition among diverse interests. Due to the variety of opinions and social conflicts, there are no perfect solutions to problems. Decisions must be made based on the consent and approval of the majority of citizens, while avoiding the "tyranny of the majority," which would violate democratic principles and inalienable human rights.
• In the context of democratically managed conflicts of interest, political parties represent specific interests. Conflict resolution and political compromise in society are possible only when differing interests are openly expressed, and parties acknowledge each other's right to represent particular interests, adhering to democratic principles.
• Even in non-party-based elections, such as those for Panchayats in various states, villages often split into factions that each propose their own panel of candidates, similar to what political parties do.
• The emergence of political parties is closely tied to the development of representative democracies. As societies grew larger and more complex, there was a need for mechanisms to gather diverse views on various issues and present them to the government, facilitating the formation of a responsible government by bringing together various representatives.

Political Parties and Party Systems

• Ensuring the freedom of political parties is essential, which means that the formation of these parties should be free from any political constraints.
• The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) envisioned a theory where conflicts are deemed illegitimate, and democracy is seen as the alignment of government and citizens. According to Rousseau, multiple parties are not valid as they would distort the "common will" with their individual interests. Any deviation from the prescribed common good is not accepted in this theory.
• Rousseau's idea is often associated with totalitarian regimes where a variety of parties are prohibited, and the "common will" is determined solely by a small ruling group.

Functions of Political Parties

1. Articulation and Aggregation of Interests: Political parties express and aggregate societal expectations and demands, serving as a bridge between social groups and the political system.
2. Recruitment and Training of Political Personnel: Parties identify and present candidates for elections, ensuring a steady supply of political leaders.
3. Development of Political Programs: They integrate diverse interests into comprehensive political programs, seeking majority support through campaigning.
4. Promotion of Political Socialization and Participation: Parties foster political engagement among citizens, facilitating participation with the promise of success.
5. Organization of Government: Parties compete in elections to occupy political offices, with many government positions emerging from party affiliations.
6. Legitimacy of the Political System: By linking citizens, social groups, and the political system, parties help anchor the political order in the public consciousness.

In most democracies, elections are primarily contested by candidates put forward by political parties. The process of candidate selection varies by country. For example:

• In the United States, party members and supporters choose the candidates.
• In other countries, such as India, party leaders often have the authority to select candidates for elections.

This diversity in candidate selection methods reflects the different ways parties operate within various democratic systems.

Parties and Ideologies

• Ideologies and specific worldviews hold significant importance for political parties. Ideologies provide comprehensive perspectives on societies and social changes, offering explanations, values, and goals for past, present, and future developments. They inspire and justify political and social actions and are crucial for political orientation.
• The term "ideology" has historically been associated with leftist, communist, and socialist parties to describe their worldviews and political stances. However, other political perspectives, such as liberalism, conservatism, nationalism, and fascism, can also be considered ideologies.
• There have been discussions about a perceived "des-ideologization" of politics, indicating that many contemporary parties emphasize their pragmatic approaches to social and political challenges over their ideological foundations. Nonetheless, ideologies remain relevant for identifying different worldviews and political positions.
• The idea of the "end of ideologies," proposed by American political scientist Francis Fukuyama after the Cold War, suggested that liberal democracy would prevail over all other forms of governance, leading to the cessation of ideological debates. However, understanding various ideological strands is crucial for individuals engaged in politics. It helps in defining one’s political stance, evaluating other positions, and, if necessary, opposing them.

Pressure Groups

• A pressure group is an organization that aims to influence public policy and decisions at local, national, or international levels. These groups often focus on specific interests and may resort to legal action to defend their members' interests or advance their causes.
• Pressure groups play an indirect role in the political landscape by attempting to sway legislative or governing institutions on behalf of their own special interests or the broader public they represent. They influence government decisions without directly participating in politics.
• According to sociologist Anthony Giddens, pressure groups are seen as carriers of democracy, reflecting the existence of pluralism and decentralizing power within the political system. From a functionalist perspective, these groups contribute positively to decision-making by facilitating orderly political participation.

Classification of Pressure Groups

1. Primary and Secondary Pressure Groups

• Primary Pressure Groups: These organizations actively engage in political activities to influence public policy. Examples include the Electoral Reform Society and India Against Corruption.
• Secondary Pressure Groups: These groups primarily focus on non-political activities and rarely involve themselves in political processes. For instance, many churches and charities are considered secondary pressure groups, as they risk losing charitable status if their objectives are seen as overly political.

2. Sectional, Protective, and Cause Pressure Groups

• Sectional or Protective Groups: These groups aim to protect the interests of their members. For example, trade unions work to improve the earnings and living standards of their members, while the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) advocates for policies that benefit private industry. Membership is restricted to individuals involved in the specific sector represented by the group.
• Promotional or Cause Groups: Unlike sectional groups, these organizations seek to advance causes important to their members. Examples include Amnesty International and the Child Poverty Action Group. Membership is open to anyone who supports the causes promoted by these groups.
• Some groups, like trade unions, may be seen as both sectional and cause groups due to their broad support for various causes beyond protecting their members' interests.

3. Insider and Outsider Pressure Groups

• Insider Pressure Groups: These groups are regularly consulted by governments and achieve insider status by demonstrating features such as high membership density, compatibility with government objectives, and the capacity to provide reliable information. Examples include the Indian Medical Association and the CII.
• Outsider Pressure Groups: These groups are often seen as less legitimate by governments and may prefer outsider status to avoid moderating their fundamental objectives. They engage in direct action to increase public support. Examples include PETA and Greenpeace.

4. Local, National, and International Pressure Groups

• Local Pressure Groups: These groups focus on influencing local council decisions on issues such as licensing new businesses or introducing local regulations.
• National Pressure Groups: Large organizations, such as trade unions, may negotiate on wages or working conditions at a national level or with multinational corporations.
• International Pressure Groups: Business and environmental groups may engage in negotiations at local, national, and international levels, depending on the scope of their activities.

5. Anomic Pressure Groups

• These groups can be dysfunctional by representing narrow self-interests that marginalize other concerns, and some may use illegal methods, such as terrorist organizations. Anomic pressure groups are considered a part of modern democracy.
• Despite their limitations, pressure groups are integral to the democratic process, contributing to both the strengthening and weakening of democracy.
• Theorists influenced by democratic pluralism generally praise the democratic activities of pressure groups, while those influenced by Marxism,Elitism,Corporatism, and the New Right take a more critical stance. However, the absence of independent pressure groups would highlight their significant contribution to the functioning of liberal democracy.