The Mughal Empire (1526-40) and (1555-1857) | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

• The Mughal emperors were descendants of two prominent Central Asian and Mongolian ruling families.
• Babur: the founder of the Mughal Empire in India was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
• Babur succeeded his father as the ruler of Farghana (Uzbekistan) but soon lost his kingdom.
• Babur was facing financial difficulties, concerns about a potential Uzbek invasion of Kabul, and an invitation from Rana Sanga to invade India, which prompted his shift of focus towards India.Growth of Mughal Empire

Babur (1526 - 1530 AD)

Babur

•  Defeated  Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
• Was a  descendant of Timur on his father's side and of Genghis Khan on his mother's side.
• Umar Shaikh Mirza was his  father  .
• After defeating Ibrahim Lodi, he won a decisive victory against the  Afghans.
• Defeated the Rana of Mewar, Sangram Singh or Rana Sanga on March 16, 1527, at Khanua.
• In 1528, he captured Chanderi from Rajput chief Medini Rai. A year later, he defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi in the  Battle of Ghagra in Bihar.
• A detailed record of Babur's career is found in his autobiography  —Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnamah—which he wrote in his mother tongue (Turki).

Significance of Babur's Advent into India

• Babur created  Char-Baghs and designed gardens.
• Mosques were constructed by Babur in Panipat and Sambhat in Rohilkhand.
• Notable literary contributions include the  Tuzuk-i-Baburi  (Babarnama) and Masnavi by Babur.
• Kabul and Gandhar were incorporated as integral parts of the expanding  Mughal Empire.
• The Mughals enjoyed nearly two centuries of protection from external invasions under Babur's rule.
• Babur played a key role in popularising the use of gunpowder, cavalry, and artillery in India, even though gunpowder had been used earlier in the region.
• Babur contributed to the strengthening of India's foreign trade.
• Introducing a new mode of warfare, Babur significantly influenced military strategies in India.
• By defeating Sangha and Lodi, Babur disrupted the balance of power and laid the foundation for a unified empire in India.
• Babur assumed the title of  Padshah during his reign.

Humayun (1530-40 & 1555-56)

Humayun

• Humayun became the emperor in Agra on December 29, 1530 CE.
• He divided large parts of his father's empire among his three brothers and two cousins.
• Karan was confirmed in his possession of Kabul and Qandhar.
• Askari got Sambhal, while Hindal was given Alwar and Mewat.
• His first important military action was taking Kalinjar, which was vital for his control over northern India.
• In 1532 CE, he defeated the Afghans at the Battle of Dauhria.
• Sher Shah proved to be the most formidable enemy of Humayun, and after defeating the latter at Chausa and Kanauj in 1540, completely shattered his prospects.
• After his final defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri the Mughal empire in India was temporarily eclipsed and Humayun had to pass nearly fifteen years (1540-55) in exile.
• After regaining his empire, Humayun died in an accident shortly after.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545)

• Founder and Duration: Sher Shah Suri was the founder of the Suri dynasty, which succeeded the Lodhi dynasty in India. His reign lasted for five years, from 1540 to 1545.
• Administrative Achievements:
  • Notable constructions during his reign included the Purana Qila (Old Fort) and its mosque, as well as the Mausoleum at Sasaram.
  • Malik Muhammad Jayasi authored the renowned Hindi work "Padmavat" during Sher Shah's rule.
• Continuity in Central Administration:  Sher Shah retained the central administration structure of the earlier Sultanate period. Key officials included:
  •  Diwan-i-Wizarat/Wazir:  Responsible for revenue and finance.
  •  Diwan-i-Ariz:  In charge of the army.
  •  Diwan-i-Rasalat:  Foreign minister.
  •  Diwan-i-Insha:  Responsible for communications.
  •  Barid:  In charge of intelligence.
• Empire Division and Local Administration:
  • Sher Shah divided his empire into administrative units called "sarkars." 
  • Each sarkar had a Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) overseeing administration.
  • Each sarkar was further divided into  Parganas, each administered by Shiqdar, Amin, Fotedar, and Karkuns.
  • Mauza (village) constituted the lowest level of administration.
• Administrative Units and Officers:
  • Administrative units called iqtas were also present.
  • Revenue officers, known as Amils, and Qanungo maintained revenue records.
•  Land Revenue System:  
  • Sher Shah implemented a detailed land revenue system, which included a survey of land and a schedule of crop rates (ray).
  • Improved land revenue through zabti-i-har-sal (annual land assessment).
  • Cultivable land was classified into three categories: good, middle, and bad. The state’s share of the produce was one-third, paid in cash or crops. 
  • New practices such as  Patta  (peasant payment) and  Qabuliyat  (deed of agreement) were introduced.
•  Currency:  
  • Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called "Dam," which were used in various forms across different regions until after 1835.
•  Trade Routes:  
  • Sher Shah established the Shahi Road, later known as the Grand Trunk (GT) Road, which connected Calcutta and Peshawar. 
  • This road was equipped with  Sarais  (lodging places) that served as post offices and eventually developed into market towns.
•  Military and Administrative Practices:  
  • Sher Shah adopted horse branding practices from Alauddin Khalji.
  • Maintained a personal royal force known as  Khasa Kail.

Akbar (1556-1605)

Akbar

Conquests 

•  Malwa was taken from  Baz Bahadur in  1561.
• In  1562, the  Ain Marwar fortress was seized after a short siege.
•  Chandrasen, the ruler of  Marwar, surrendered to Akbar in  1563.
• In 1567 Akbar himself conducted the siege of the fort of Chittor, which fell the next year (1568) after a desperate resistance.
• Forts at  Ranthambhor surrendered in  1569, followed by  Marwar and  Bikaner in  1570.
• The  Battle of Haldighati took place in  1576  between  Akbar and  Rana Pratap Singh.
• Akbar himself led an expedition to  Gujarat in  1572 and completed the siege of  Surat in  1573.
• In 1574-75 Bihar and Bengal were conquered by the Afghan chief Daud.
• After the death of Muhammad Hakim in 1586, Kabul was annexed to the Mughal Empire.
• In 1586, Kashmir was annexed to the empire, and in 1593, as a prelude to the conquest of Kandahar, the whole of Sindh was annexed.
•  Kandahar was taken from  Persia in  1594.
•  Asirgarh fort was taken in  1601  and  Khandesh was added to the empire.

His Liberal Measures 

• In  1562, Akbar ordered that during wars, Hindu non-combatants and families of combatants should not be captured, enslaved, or forced to convert to  Islam.
• He abolished the pilgrim tax in  1563.
•  Jeziyah was eliminated in  1564.
• Akbar set up a translation department to convert works from  Sanskrit and other languages into  Persian.
• He banned the use of beef and later prohibited the killing of certain animals on specific days in  1583.

 Religious Movements 

•  The movement of the non-sectarian path: A non-sectarian movement in  Gujarat by  Dadu, emphasizing the oneness of the Supreme Reality without aligning with  Hindus or  Muslims.
•  Satnami Movement: Foundation of a new sect, called Satnamis (their god being Satnam) by Birbhan. Their rejection of the caste system, idol-worship, and their maintenance of high standards of morals.
•  Narayanian Movement: Initiated by  Haridas in  Maharashtra, this movement focused on the worship of one God,  Narayan or the supreme being.
•  Dharma Movement: A movement in  Maharashtra worshipping  Vithoba and rejecting the caste system.
•  Sufi Movement: Promoted by  Dara Shikoh, this movement emphasized  Tauhid, the unity of God.
•  Reactionary Movements: Led by  Raghunandan of  Navadwipa in  Bengal among orthodox  Hindus, and by  Shaikh Ahmad Sarhindi among orthodox  Muslims for the general welfare and better government of the country.
• Rebellion of Jahangir’s son Khusran at Lahore (1606). The rebellious prince was captured, blinded, confined and subsequently killed by Khurram in 1622.
•  Sikh Guru Arjan's Martyrdom: The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan with whom the rebel prince had stayed at Tarn Taran and also received his blessings, was first fined by the government, but as he refused to pay the fine he was sentenced to death.
• Jahangir's Military Expeditions: The first military action was against  Rana Amar Singh of  Mewar to address ongoing conflicts.
• The greatest failure of Jahangir’s reign was the loss of Kandahar to Persia.
• In 1613, Nur Jahan was promoted to the status of Padshah Begum, coins were struck in her name and on all farmans her name was attached to the imperial signature.
• Nur Jahan's influence secured high positions for her father who got the title of Itimaduddaulah. 
• Jahangir’s reign has been vividly portrayed by two representatives of King James I of England, namely, Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-19).
• They visited his court to gain favourable concessions for English trade with India.
• As a result of the efforts of Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat, Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach.

Jahangir (1605-1627)

Jahangir

•  Art and Architecture:  
  • Jahangir was famous for a technique called  Pietra Dura  , where he decorated walls with floral patterns made from semi-precious stones. 
  • He built the  Moti Masjid in Lahore and established beautiful gardens like the  Shalimar and  Nishant gardens in Kashmir.
  • Jahangir also introduced the use of halo lights, which were divine lights placed behind the king's head in paintings.
•  Succession and Early Reign:  
  • After the death of  Akbar, Prince Salim became king in 1605, taking the name Jahangir, meaning  Conqueror of the World.
•  Revolts and Political Influences:  
  • Jahangir faced a revolt from his son  Khusrau, who was eventually defeated and imprisoned.  
  • Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru and a supporter of Khusrau was executed during this time.
•  European Interactions:  
  • During Jahangir's reign, British traders visited  Machilipatnam.
  • Captain Hawkins and  Thomas Roe also visited Jahangir's court, with Roe receiving a  Farman  (royal decree) to establish an English factory at  Surat, which was later approved by  Shah Jahan.
•  Nurjahan's Influence:  
  • Jahangir's wife,  Nurjahan, wielded significant power and influence over government affairs during his reign.
•  Justice and Military Affairs: 
  • Jahangir set up the  Zanjir-i-adal at  Agra Fort, a system for people seeking royal justice. Military general  Mahtab Khan revolted against Jahangir during his reign.
•  Literary Contribution:  
  • Jahangir authored his autobiography,  Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, in Persian, detailing his life and reign.
•  Military Expeditions:  
  • Jahangir faced significant challenges from  Malik Amber during military campaigns in  Ahmednagar.
•  Administrative Modification:  
  • Jahangir introduced the du-aspah-sih-aspah system, a modification of the  Mansabdari system that allowed nobles to maintain large numbers of troops without increasing their  zat ranks.

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

Shah Jahan

• At the time of Jahangir’s death in October 1627, Shah Jahan was in the Deccan.
• The first three years of Shah Jahan’s reign were disturbed by the rebellions of the Bundela Chief Juhar Singh and of Khan Jahan Lodi.
• In 1632, Shah Jahan expelled the  Portuguese from Hugli and took control of the area.
• The  Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmadnagar was incorporated into the Mughal Empire during his reign.
• In 1636, Shah Jahan appointed his son Aurangzeb as the  Mughal viceroy in the Deccan, dividing the territories into four subahs: Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Ahmadnagar.
• In 1639, Ali Mardan Khan, the Persian Governor of Kandahar, surrendered the fort to the Mughals without a fight.
• Shah Abbas II of Persia reclaimed Kandahar from the Mughals in 1649.
• The  Siege of Golconda and Bijapur occurred in 1656 and 1657.
• When Shah Jahan fell ill in September 1657, his sons were in different regions: Dara in Agra, Shuja in Bengal, Aurangzeb in the Deccan, and Murad in Gujarat.
• Many foreign travellers who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan, have left a vivid account of his reign.
• Of these two Frenchmen Bernier and Travenier and an Italian adventurer Manucci, the author of the Storio Dor Mogor, are especially noteworthy.

Aurangzeb (1658 -1707)

Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb positioned himself as the champion of  Sunni orthodoxy.
• In 1659, he enacted several laws to reinstate the  Muslim code of conduct based on the teachings of the Quran.
• He stopped the practice of inscribing the  Kalima on coins and abolished the celebration of New Year’s Day (nauroz).
• Muhtasibs were appointed in all major cities to enforce Quranic law and eliminate practices that were forbidden.
• He also ended the tradition of weighing the emperor on his birthdays and the practice of  Jharokadarshan.
• In 1668, the celebration of Hindu festivals was banned.
• In 1679-1680, the  Jat peasantry from Mathura revolted under the leadership of Gokala.
• In 1672, the Satanami peasants in Punjab and the Bundelas led by Champat also rose up.

Facts To be Remembered

• Akbar's foster mother was  Maham Anaga.
• Akbar was successfully put down a rebellion by  Uzbek nobles.
• The new capital of Rana Pratap was Chavand.
•  Chandrasen, the ruler of Marwar, fought against Akbar using guerrilla tactics.
• During Akbar's reign, important texts like the  Singhasan Battisi, the  Atharva Veda, and the  Bible were translated into Persian.
• The Kabul-Ghazni-Qandhar line was established by Akbar.
• The peasants who owned the land they tilled were called Khudkasht.
• At the beginning of the 17th century, India's population was about  125 million.
• The  Rajputs were the largest group of Hindu nobility during Akbar's rule, with the  Kachhwahas being the most notable clan.
• In  Aurangzeb's time, Hindus formed 33%  of the nobility, with the  Marathas being more than half of the Hindu nobles.
•  Jahangir was known for starting the fashion of wearing expensive  jewels in their ears after piercing them.
• The  Chettis were a trading community from South India in Mughal India.
• The fifth Guru Arjun Das started a system of collecting offerings from the Sikh at the rate of one-tenth of their income.
• Prohibited taxes during the Mughal era were called abwabs.
• At  Shah Jahan's court,  Jagannath and  Janardan Bhatta were famous musicians.
•  Bihari Lal, a poet in Shah Jahan's time, wrote  Satsai, a collection of  700 dohas and sortas.
• An important historical work from Shah Jahan's era is the  Amal-i-Salih by  Mohammad Salih.
•  Mirza Hossain Ali composed songs in Bengali to praise  Goddess Kali.
•  Amir Khusrau  famously said, "If on earth be an  Eden of Bliss  on earth, "It is this, it is this, none but this."

Mughal Empire at a Glance