Rashtrakutas: Polity and Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A.D.)

During the time when the  Palas and the  Pratiharas were in power in north India, the  Rashtrakutas ruled over the Deccan region. They were initially feudatories under the Chalukyas. The Rashtrakuta dynasty was founded by Dantidurga, with its capital at Manyakheta.

• Dantidurga defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa.
• He then annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II.
• This victory established the Rashtrakutas as a dominant power in the Deccan region.

The Rashtrakuta kingdom was centrally located in India, along the top of the Deccan Plateau. This strategic position allowed them to dominate northern Maharashtra and provided opportunities for expansion. The Rashtrakutas frequently interfered with both northern and southern kingdoms of India.

• The northern kingdoms were particularly vulnerable to the Rashtrakutas because there was no single powerful entity to effectively resist them.
• Although their raids did not extend the Rashtrakuta empire to the Ganga valley
• these expeditions brought in significant plunder and enhanced the fame of the Rashtrakutas.
• The Rashtrakutas engaged in constant conflicts with the Pratiharas for control over Gujarat and Malwa. They also fought against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi in modern Andhra Pradesh, and in the south against the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.
• The Rashtrakutas controlled large portions of the western coast of India, which was vital for trade with West Asia. Major ports along this coast facilitated the export of tea and cotton textiles and the import of horses, which were sold further inland. The Rashtrakutas also maintained good relations with the Arabs in Sind and engaged in extensive trade with them.
• However, by the end of the 10th century, the geographical advantages that had initially benefited the Rashtrakutas began to turn into disadvantages. New powers emerged as threats, particularly in the south. The Cholas were rising to become the dominant kingdom in the area, while the Chalukya dynasty, which the Rashtrakutas had overthrown, was regaining much of its former power and territory.

The Rashtrakutas faced challenges from these resurgent powers in the south and from the Shilaharas in northwestern Deccan, who seized control over much of the western coast and port cities of Western India. Ultimately, the Rashtrakuta dynasty was overthrown by the Chalukyas, from whom Dantidurga had claimed independence centuries earlier.

Origin of the Rashtrakutas

There are various theories regarding the origin of the Rashtrakutas, and historians have proposed several explanations based on available evidence.

Descent from the Yadava Family:

• One theory suggests that the Rashtrakutas were indigenous people who claimed descent from the sacred Yadava family mentioned in ancient Indian epics. This claim is particularly considered due to their prominence in the Gujarat and Deccan regions.
• Among the 75 inscriptions and copper grants related to the Rashtrakutas found in Deccan and Gujarat, only eight mention any connection between the Rashtrakutas and the Yadavas.
• For instance, a copper grant dated 914 C.E. states that Rashtrakuta Dantidurga was born in the line of Yadava Satyaki. Similarly, the ancient text Kavirahasya by Halayudha also refers to the Rashtrakutas as descendants of Yadava Satyaki.

Alternative Opinion:

• Another perspective posits that "Rashtrakuta" was a title given by the Chalukya kings to governors of provinces, meaning "head of the region." According to this view, it was such a governor who established an independent kingdom, leading to the dynasty being called the Rashtrakutas.
• As they grew more powerful, they also adopted the title of Prithvi Vallabha, with "Vallabha" being transliterated into "Balharas" in contemporary Arab chronicles.

Tribes of Punjab:

• The earliest mention of the Rashtrakutas is found in the Edicts of Ashoka Maurya, where they are referred to as Rashtrika and Rathika, indicating a tribe from the North-Western regions of India.
• Some historians believe that Rashtrika refers to the same tribe as the Arattas of Punjab, who are mentioned in the Mahabharata and in accounts of Alexander’s invasion of Gandhara.
• Historian C.V. Vaidya suggests that the Rashtrakutas were initially settlers from Punjab who migrated south and established a kingdom in the Deccan, eventually becoming the Kshatriyas of Maharashtra.

Kanarese Origin:

• Dr. A.S. Altekar proposed that the Rashtrakutas originally lived in the Karnataka region and that their mother tongue was Kanarese. He argued that they used the Kanarese script.
• Several inscriptions refer to them as "Lord of Lattura," with Lattura identified with modern Latur in Bidar, Karnataka.

Sources of Information

Various sources provide information about the Rashtrakutas, including:

• Numerous inscriptions scattered across the Deccan, written in Sanskrit and Kannada, along with stone records.
• Literary sources such as ancient literature in Pali, contemporaneous Kannada literature like Kavirajamarga and Vikramarjuna Vijaya, and Sanskrit writings by authors like Somadeva,Rajashekara,Gunabhadra, and Jinasena.
• Records by Arab travelers of the time, including Suleiman,Ibn Haukal,Al Masudi, and Al Istakhri.

Political History of the Rashtrakutas

Dantidurga and Krishna I: Early Expansion:

• The Rashtrakuta dynasty gained prominence under Dantidurga, who expanded their territory and influence.
• Krishna I, Dantidurga’s successor, continued the campaign of expansion by defeating the Gang and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
• Krishna I is also known for constructing the impressive rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora, a significant architectural achievement.

Govinda III: The Apex of Power:

• Govinda III (793-814) was a pivotal figure in the Rashtrakuta dynasty, known for his military conquests in north India.
• He defeated Nagabhatta of Kanauj and annexed Malwa, showcasing his military prowess.
• His campaigns intimidated the Kerala, Pandya, and Chola kings and weakened the Pallavas. He even defeated the Ganga of Karnataka and captured the king of Lanka, bringing him and his minister as prisoners to Halapur.
• Statues of the lord of Lanka were brought to Manyakhet and installed as symbols of victory.

Amoghavarsha: A Shift in Focus:

• Amoghavarsha (814-878) ruled for 64 years, emphasizing religion and literature over military conquests.
• He was a patron of literature, credited with writing the first Kannada book on poetics,Kavirajamarga.
• A follower of Jainism, he was known for his building projects, including the capital city Manyakhet.
• Despite his efforts, he lost control over Malwa and Gangavadi, and faced numerous rebellions throughout the empire, which continued after his death.

Indra III: Restoration and Power:

• Indra III (915-927), grandson of Amoghavarsha, restored the Rashtrakuta Empire.
• After defeating Mahipala and sacking Kanauj in 915, he became the most powerful ruler of his time.
• Historian al-Masudi noted Indra III as a great king, with vast armies and elephants, and most Indian rulers accepted his suzerainty.

Krishna III: The Final Flourish:

• Krishna III (934-963) was known for his military expeditions against the Paramaras of Malwa, the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, and the Chola ruler of Tanjore.
• He notably defeated Chola king Parantaka I in 949 and annexed parts of the Chola Empire.
• Krishna III established a pillar of victory at Rameshwaram and built several temples, including the Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram.
• He maintained control over the Tondaimandalam region and the capital Kanchi.

Decline of the Rashtrakuta Empire:

• After Krishna III’s death, his successors faced united opposition from rival powers.
• The Rashtrakuta capital,Malkhed, was sacked and burnt in 972, marking the end of the Rashtrakuta Empire.

Legacy:

• The Rashtrakutas ruled the Deccan for nearly two centuries, leaving a lasting impact on the region’s history and culture.

Administration

The Rashtrakuta Empire, under the direct authority of the monarch, was structured into several provinces known as rashtras, each overseen by a rashtrapati.

Rashtras:

• Rashtrapati: The rashtrapati held both civil and military authority over the rashtra. Their responsibilities included maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and keeping records of accounts.

Vishayas:

• The rashtras were further divided into vishayas or districts, which were governed by vishayapatis.

Bhukti:

• Next, the bhukti comprised 50 to 70 villages under the authority of bhogapatis.
• These officers were appointed directly by the central government.

Village Administration:

• At the village level, administration was carried out by village headmen.
• However, the village assemblies, or councils, played a crucial role in governance, with each household represented in the councils.

King:

• The king was the ultimate authority and source of power in the empire.
• To enhance his dignity, he used grand titles such as Paramesvara,Paramabhattaraka, and Maharajadhiraja.
• The king lived in great luxury and splendor, and the Rashtrakuta court was known for its impressive ceremonies and strict etiquette.
• At court, the king was accompanied by ministers, officers, vassals, generals, poets, and other dignitaries.
• Kingship was typically hereditary, passing from father to eldest son, known as yuvaraja. In some cases, younger sons could be chosen as heirs.

Ministers:

• Ministers were responsible for the day-to-day administration.
• Efficient individuals were appointed as ministers, and some officers were tasked with inspecting the empire and monitoring the vassals.

Vassals:

• Parts of the empire were directly ruled by the emperor, while other regions were governed by vassals.
• Powerful vassals had significant autonomy in their internal administration and could grant land without the emperor's consent.
• Vassals were required to attend the emperor's court when summoned and sometimes accompanied the king on military campaigns.

Army:

• The Rashtrakuta Empire maintained a large standing army, primarily stationed at the capital for security.
• This army was used for both defensive and offensive purposes.
• Additionally, the armies of the provinces and feudal lords could be called upon when needed.

Revenue:

• State revenue was mainly derived from tributes paid by vassals.
• Revenue also came from mines, forests, and wasteland.
• The land tax, known as Udranga or Bhagakara, was typically one-fourth of the gross produce.
• Lands granted to Brahmins and temples were not exempt from taxation, but the tax rate was lower for these lands.
• In cases of natural disasters like drought or famine, taxes were not levied.

Coins:

• The Rashtrakuta Empire had a system of coins, including five types: Drama, Suvarna, Godhyanka, Kalanju, and Kasu.
• Some gold coins were also issued by Rashtrakuta emperors.

Society

The Dharmasastras and the writings of Arab writers provide insights into the society and economic conditions of the period.

Social Structure:

• There were various social groups, with the Brahmans enjoying a superior status among the four varnas. However, in practice, the privileges of the Kshatriyas were nearly equal to those of the Brahmans.
• The status of the Vaishyas had declined significantly during this period.
• Conversely, the position of the Sudras improved, partly due to the Bhakti movements led by the Nayanars and Alvars, which preached equality among all castes.
• The untouchables were increasingly marginalized and excluded from mainstream society.

Family and Inheritance:

• The joint family system was prevalent, and widows and daughters were recognized as legal heirs to property.
• The sati system was not widely practiced in the Deccan region.
• Child marriage had become a common practice within society.

Religious Developments:

• During the time of the Rashtrakutas, Hindu sects such as Vaishnavism and Saivism prospered.
• Despite the rise of these sects, the progress of Jainism under the patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officials continued unabated.
• There were also prosperous Buddhist settlements in places like Kanheri,Sholapur, and Dharwar.
• Notably, there was a college at Salatogi, located in the modern Bijapur district, which was supported by endowments from the wealthy and contributions from villagers during festivals and special occasions.

Economic Conditions:

• The economy was thriving, with agriculture continuing to receive significant attention from the government.
• However, there was notable progress in mining and industry during this period.

Textile Industry:

• The textile industry made substantial advancements, with cloth being produced in large quantities to meet internal demand and leaving a significant surplus for export.
• Major articles of export included muslins,hides,mats,indigo,incense,sandal,teakwood, and ivory.
• Import articles comprised gold,wine,copper,tin,lead,topaz, etc.

Trade and Commerce:

• Commercial transactions were conducted through barter or by the exchange of gold and silver.
• Trade and industries were organized into guilds, which regulated trade, industry, and banking activities.
• Foreign trade was likely managed by Arab merchants, who had become intermediaries in Indian overseas trade.
• There was active commerce between the Deccan and the Arabs, facilitated by the Rashtrakuta kings, who promoted Arab trade through friendly relations.