Religion in Modern Society: Religion and Science | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Religion and Science

Science and religion are multifaceted social and cultural phenomena that have evolved and varied across different societies and historical periods. Prior to the scientific revolution, most scientific and technological advancements were made by communities organized around religious beliefs. Aspects of the scientific method were developed by ancient pagan, Islamic, and Christian scholars, including Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar, who is often credited with formalizing the method.

• Different religious traditions have held diverse perspectives on science. Hinduism, for example, has historically valued reason and empiricism, believing that science offers valid but partial knowledge of the world and the universe. Confucianism has expressed varying views of science over time, while contemporary Buddhists generally consider science to complement their beliefs. The ancient Indian and Greek categorization of the material world into air, earth, fire, and water was primarily philosophical; however, medieval Middle Eastern scholars used practical and experimental observations for classification.
• Certain events in European history, such as the Galileo affair during the scientific revolution and the Age of Enlightenment, led to the development of the conflict thesis by scholars like John William Draper. This thesis posits that religion and science have been in methodological, factual, and political conflict throughout history. Some modern scientists, including Richard Dawkins, Lawrence Krauss, Peter Atkins, and Donald Prothero, continue to support this view. However, the conflict thesis has largely fallen out of favor among contemporary historians of science.

Perspectives
The relationship between science and religion can be understood through four different perspectives, as proposed by theologian, Anglican priest, and physicist John Polkinghorne. These perspectives are also supported by theologians Ian Barbour and John Haught. These four perspectives are:

• Conflict between the disciplines - This perspective highlights the disagreements and clashes between scientific and religious beliefs, often presenting them as incompatible with each other.
• Independence of the disciplines - In this perspective, science and religion are considered separate domains, each with its own unique methods and areas of inquiry, and hence, they do not interfere with each other.
• Dialogue between the disciplines where they overlap - This perspective emphasizes the areas where science and religion can engage in a constructive conversation, acknowledging both their similarities and differences.
• Integration of both into one field - This perspective argues for a unified approach, combining the insights of both science and religion, and suggesting that they can complement and enrich each other.

Incompatibility
The historical conflict between evolution and religion stems from the intrinsic incompatibility between scientific rationalism/empiricism and belief in supernatural causation, as stated by Guillermo Paz-y-Miño-C and Avelina Espinosa. Evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne points out that the struggle to believe in both evolution and religion simultaneously indicates their incompatibility.

• Physical chemist Peter Atkins suggests that while religion dismisses the power of human comprehension, science respects it. Planetary scientist Carolyn Porco envisions a future where the confrontation between science and religion ceases, as science takes on the role currently played by religion in people's lives. Geologist and paleontologist Donald Prothero argues that religion causes Americans to fail science literacy tests compared to other nations, due to questions about evolution, earth's age, cosmology, and human evolution.
• Daniel Dennett believes that incompatibility exists because religion can only sustain itself to a certain point before collapsing into excuses for maintaining certain beliefs, despite evolutionary evidence. Neil deGrasse Tyson highlights that science relies on experimental verification, while religion relies on faith, making their approaches to knowledge irreconcilable and eternally incompatible. Victor J. Stenger shares a similar view, stating that science and religion are incompatible due to conflicts in their approaches to knowledge and the existence of alternative natural explanations for phenomena that are often explained in religious contexts.
• Sean M. Carroll asserts that since religion makes claims incompatible with science, such as supernatural events, the two are incompatible. Richard Dawkins is openly critical of fundamentalist religion as he believes it undermines the scientific enterprise and hinders scientific education. Dawkins argues that religion negatively impacts the teaching of science, as parents who believe it conflicts with their religious beliefs often show hostility towards science teachers, and even some textbooks have had the word 'evolution' systematically removed. He works to highlight the detrimental effects he believes religion has on science education.

Conflict thesis
The conflict thesis posits that there has been an ongoing struggle between science and religion throughout history. This idea was popularized in the 19th century by John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. One famous example of this conflict is the Galileo affair, where the Catholic Church opposed the heliocentric theory of Copernicus, which contradicted biblical interpretations. However, it is essential to note that the Church's stance was in line with the scientific consensus at the time.

• Some modern thinkers, such as A.C. Grayling, still argue that there is competition between science and religion, particularly concerning the origin of the universe, human nature, and miracles. However, other perspectives, such as Stephen Jay Gould's "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA) concept, argue that science and religion deal with fundamentally separate aspects of human experience and can coexist peacefully when each stays within its domain.Conflict: Scientists endorse Darwin’s theory of evolution. Devout Christians swear by the Biblical message that God created man in His own image.
• The National Academy of Science in the USA also supports the view that science and religion are independent, with science focusing on evidence from the natural world and religion involving supernatural forces or entities. Archbishop John Habgood believes that both science and religion represent distinct ways of approaching experience, with science being descriptive and religion being prescriptive. He warns that conflating the two can lead to inaccurately ascribing properties to the natural world.

Parallels in method

• Ian Barbour, Thomas S. Kuhn, and Michael Polanyi have all drawn parallels between the methods of science and religion. Kuhn suggested that scientific paradigms arise from cultural traditions, similar to how secular perspectives view religion. Polanyi argued that the commitment to universality is what protects against subjectivity in science, rather than personal detachment. He believed that all knowledge is personal, and therefore, scientists perform a personal role in their work, often following intuitions of intellectual beauty, symmetry, and empirical agreement. Polanyi also stated that science requires moral commitments, much like religion.
• Physicists Charles A. Coulson and Harold K. Schilling also found commonalities between the methods of science and religion. Schilling claimed that both fields consist of a threefold structure, including experience, theoretical interpretation, and practical application. Coulson argued that science, like religion, advances through creative imagination and not just by collecting facts. He also stated that religion should involve critical reflection on experience, similar to the process in science. Furthermore, the language used in both science and religion shows parallels, indicating that their methods may have more in common than previously thought.

Dialogue
The religion and science community is a group of scholars who engage in the "religion-and-science dialogue" or the "religion-and-science field." This community is not solely part of the scientific or religious community but is a third overlapping community consisting of scientists, priests, theologians, and engaged non-professionals. Institutions such as the Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences, the Institute on Religion in an Age of Science, the Ian Ramsey Centre, and the Faraday Institute focus on the intersection between science and religion. Journals like Theology and Science and Zygon also address this relationship.

• Eugenie Scott believes that the "science and religion" movement is mainly composed of theists who respect science and may be beneficial for the public understanding of science. However, she argues that the "Theistic science" movement, which proposes abandoning methodological materialism, can cause problems in understanding the nature of science. The Gifford Lectures, established in 1885, aimed to foster discussion between "natural theology" and the scientific community, and this annual series continues today.
• The modern dialogue between religion and science began with Ian Barbour's 1966 book Issues in Science and Religion, and since then, it has evolved into a serious academic field with dedicated academic journals and academic chairs. Articles on this subject can also be found in mainstream science journals.
• Philosopher Alvin Plantinga asserts that there is superficial conflict but deep concord between science and religion, and deep conflict between science and naturalism. In his book Where the
• Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism, Plantinga challenges the association of naturalism with science, as conceived by thinkers like Richard Dawkins and Daniel Dennett. However, critics like philosopher Maarten Boudry argue that Plantinga resorts to creationism and fails to resolve the conflict between theism and evolution. On the other hand, cognitive scientist Justin L. Barrett believes that those who need to hear Plantinga's message may not give it a fair hearing due to rhetorical rather than analytical reasons.

Integration of Science and Religion

In the context of the complex interactions between science, theology, politics, social, and economic concerns, it is essential to emphasize the productive engagements between science and religion throughout history as the standard approach. Scientific and theological perspectives have often coexisted harmoniously, with numerous examples of religious communities integrating well with scientific ideas.

• Historical instances of this integration include the ancient Egyptian technological advancements applied to monotheistic objectives, the growth of logic and mathematics within Hinduism and Buddhism, and the scientific progress achieved by Muslim scholars during the Ottoman empire. Even during the 19th century, many Christian communities welcomed scientists who argued that science was not concerned with uncovering the ultimate nature of reality.
• According to Lawrence M. Principe, a Humanities professor at Johns Hopkins University, a historical analysis reveals that the current clashes between science and religion primarily occur between extremists on both sides over a limited number of topics. He argues that the exchange of ideas between scientific and theological thought has been more common, with a shared respect for written learning in religious traditions such as rabbinical literature, Christian theology, and the Islamic Golden Age.
• This perspective highlights the crucial role of religions in the development of modern universities and libraries. Centers of learning and scholarship have often been closely associated with religious institutions, whether pagan, Muslim, or Christian. The transmission of classical texts from Greek to Islamic to Christian traditions played a significant role in sparking the Renaissance.

Buddhism

• Buddhism and science are often seen as compatible fields of study, as both share certain philosophical and psychological principles. Both Buddhism and modern Western scientific thought emphasize the importance of impartial investigation of nature, with the primary focus being self-study. Additionally, both fields place a strong emphasis on understanding causality. However, it is important to note that Buddhism does not concentrate on materialism.
• The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, asserts that when there is a conflict between empirical scientific evidence and traditional Buddhist teachings, the scientific evidence should take precedence. In his book "The Universe in a Single Atom," he expresses his belief that both science and Buddhism seek to understand the nature of reality through critical investigation. He further states that if scientific analysis conclusively disproves certain aspects of Buddhism, then those claims should be abandoned in favor of the scientific findings.

Christianity

Christian philosophers, such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, believed that scriptures could have multiple interpretations in areas where matters were beyond human understanding. This perspective led to the "Handmaiden" tradition, which supported the idea that secular studies of the universe could contribute to a better understanding of scripture. This belief motivated many Christians in the Middle Ages to investigate nature and contributed to the development of science.

• Modern historians of science have challenged the popular notion that medieval Christianity had a negative influence on the development of civilization and science. In fact, the medieval church played a significant role in promoting learning and science through its sponsorship of universities, which flourished in Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries. St. Thomas Aquinas, a prominent theologian, argued that reason and faith are in harmony and that reason can contribute to understanding revelation, thus encouraging intellectual development.
• Contrary to the belief that the Middle Ages was a time of ignorance due to the Christian church, scholars such as David C. Lindberg argue that this is a caricature. The relationship between Christianity and science is complex and cannot be reduced to simple harmony or conflict. Lindberg asserts that late medieval scholars rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and were free to pursue reason and observation in their scientific inquiries.
• The belief that God created the world and humans can lead to the view that God intended for humans to understand the world, as expressed by Thomas Aquinas. During the Enlightenment, a period marked by revolutions in science and challenges to the authority of the Catholic Church, the authority of Christian scriptures came under scrutiny. As science advanced, the literal interpretation of the Bible became increasingly untenable, and alternative ways of interpreting scripture were proposed, focusing on its spirit rather than its literal meaning.

Perspectives on evolution

In recent times, the theory of evolution has sparked controversy between Christianity and science, particularly among Christians who interpret the Bible's creation account literally. This has led to the development of creation science or scientific creationism, which seeks to provide scientific evidence for the Genesis creation story and disprove widely accepted scientific facts and theories related to Earth's geological history, the origins of life, and biological evolution.

• Creation science emerged in the 1960s in the United States as a fundamentalist Christian effort to validate Biblical inerrancy and challenge scientific evidence supporting evolution. It has since gained a substantial religious following in the US and worldwide. In the 1920s, several US states, including Tennessee, Mississippi, and Arkansas, passed laws prohibiting the teaching of evolution in schools. However, these laws were deemed unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in 1968 for violating the First and Fourth Amendments.
• Most scientists dismiss creation science for various reasons, including its lack of testable claims and its reliance on non-natural causes. In 1987, the US Supreme Court ruled that creationism is a religious doctrine, not a scientific one, and cannot be promoted in public school classrooms. Nevertheless, some privately funded schools in Florida continue to teach creationism.
• Theistic evolution, on the other hand, aims to harmonize Christian beliefs with scientific understandings of Earth's age and the process of evolution. This perspective encompasses a range of beliefs, such as evolutionary creationism, which accepts some modern scientific findings while maintaining traditional religious teachings about God and creation in Christianity.

Hinduism
In Hinduism, the boundary between objective sciences and spiritual knowledge (adhyatma vidya) is often blurred, as many Hindu scriptures also serve as ancient scientific manuals, and vice versa. Hinduism's scholastic activities and ancient Indian scientific advancements were deeply interconnected, allowing for a seamless integration of scientific and spiritual knowledge.

• When English was introduced as the primary language for higher education in India in 1835, Hindu scholars were exposed to Western secular ideas, leading to a renaissance in religious and philosophical thought. Hindu sages believed that logical argument and rational proof, using the Nyaya method, is the way to obtain accurate knowledge.
• Hinduism focuses on understanding both the workings and origins of things, as well as the ultimate purposes for the existence of living beings. The Bhāgavata is often referred to for guidance, as it draws upon both scientific and theological dialogues. Hinduism is adaptable, offering methods to correct and transform itself over time. This is evident in the diverse range of viewpoints within Hinduism concerning evolution, creationism, and the origin of life.
• Some scholars have suggested that the ideas of Wallace-Darwininan evolutionary thought were part of Hindu thought centuries before modern times. The Shankara and Sāmkhya schools of philosophy did not dispute the theory of evolution but debated the existence of God and the afterlife. With the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, many Hindus sought to connect their scriptures to Darwinism, finding similarities between Brahma's creation, Vishnu's incarnations, and evolution theories.
• Samkhya, the oldest school of Hindu philosophy, proposes a method for analyzing knowledge through three means of valid knowledge: direct sense perception (Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam), logical inference (Anumāna), and verbal testimony (Śabda or Āptavacana). The Hindu school of logic, Nyaya, accepts these three means and adds comparison (Upamāna) as a fourth.
• Hindu creation stories describe the emergence of life within the universe, with the deity Brahma being responsible for propagating life. However, these stories often do not go into specific detail, leaving room for incorporating theories supporting evolution. Some Hindus find support for or foreshadowing of evolutionary ideas in the Vedas.
• The incarnations of Vishnu (Dashavatara) closely resemble the scientific explanation of the biological evolution of humans and animals. This sequence of avatars begins with an aquatic organism (Matsya) and progresses through increasingly complex forms of life, including amphibians, land animals, and humans. Many Hindu gods are depicted with both animal and human features, allowing Hindus to accept the evolutionary link between animals and humans.
• In India, educated Hindus widely accept the theory of biological evolution. In a survey of 909 people, 77% of respondents agreed with Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution, and 85% of God-believing people said they believe in evolution as well.
• The Hindu religion, rooted in the sacred Vedas, offers another explanation for creation based on the five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and ether. The Vedas honor natural elements such as the sun, moon, water, and wind, as well as the universal order inherent in nature. This naturalism forms the foundation for the connection between Hinduism and science.

Islam
From the perspective of Islam, science and the study of nature are closely linked to the concept of Tawhid (the Oneness of God). This connection implies a sacred dimension to scientific pursuits for Muslims, as nature is seen as an integral part of Islam's holistic view of God, humanity, and the world. In fact, nature is considered a compilation of signs pointing to the Divine, as mentioned in the Qur'an.

• During the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 16th centuries), science and knowledge flourished within Islamic civilizations, with the understanding that science was a part of religion and God. The foundations of modern science can be traced back to this period, with scholars like Ibn al-Haytham contributing to the development of the scientific method, emphasizing the importance of experiments, confirmable procedures, and mathematical evidence.
• However, with the decline of Islamic civilizations and the rise of Europe, the Islamic scientific tradition faced a new challenge, as it had to adapt to the different philosophies and approaches to science that emerged from European powers. This shift led to a variety of viewpoints among Muslim scientists and scholars regarding the role of science within Islam, which persist to this day.

Jainism
Jainism is a religion that does not endorse the belief in a creator deity. It posits that the universe, along with its elements - soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion - have always existed in a static state, similar to the views held by Epicureanism and the steady-state cosmological model. The functioning of the universe is governed by natural laws, and it is impossible for matter to be created from nothing, resulting in a constant sum total of matter in the universe, akin to the law of conservation of mass.

• The Jain philosophy of causation asserts that a cause and its effect are identical in nature, implying that an immaterial and conscious entity like God cannot create a material entity like the universe. In addition, the Jain concept of divinity states that any soul that eradicates its karmas and desires achieves liberation. A soul that has removed all its passions and desires has no inclination to interfere with the universe's workings. Moral rewards and sufferings are not orchestrated by a divine being, but are instead the result of an intrinsic moral order within the cosmos, whereby an individual reaps the consequences of their actions through the functioning of karmas.
• Throughout history, Jain philosophers have staunchly rejected and opposed the notion of a creator and omnipotent God, leading to Jainism being categorized as a nastika darsana or atheist philosophy by competing religious ideologies. The idea of non-creationism and the absence of an omnipotent God and divine grace is a central theme in all aspects of Jainism, including cosmology, karma, moksha, and its ethical code of conduct. Jainism maintains that a religious and virtuous life can be achieved without the need for a creator god, providing a unique perspective on spirituality and morality.

Studies on scientists' beliefs

Studies on scientists' beliefs in the United States
A survey conducted between 2005 and 2007 by Elaine Howard Ecklund of University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, found that in terms of belief in God or a higher power, more than 60% of the 1,646 natural and social science professors at 21 US research universities expressed either disbelief or agnosticism, and more than 30% expressed belief. Ecklund's study also concluded that individuals from non-religious backgrounds disproportionately self-selected into scientific professions. Factors such as upbringing, age, and family size were significant influences on religious identification.

• Many studies have been conducted in the United States, generally finding that scientists are less likely to believe in God than the rest of the population. Precise definitions and statistics vary, with some studies concluding that about one-third of scientists in the U.S. are atheists, one-third agnostic, and one-third have some belief in God. This is in contrast to the roughly three-quarters of the general population that believe in some God in the United States.
• A 2009 report by the Pew Research Center found that members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) were "much less religious than the general public," with 51% believing in some form of deity or higher power. The survey also found younger scientists to be "substantially more likely than their older counterparts to say they believe in God."

Studies on scientists' beliefs in India

• According to the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture's report on 1,100 scientists in India: 66% are Hindu, 14% did not report a religion, 10% are atheist/no religion, 3% are Muslim, 3% are Christian, 4% are Buddhist, Sikh or other. 39% have a belief in a god, 6% have belief in a god sometimes, 30% do not believe in a god but believe in a higher power, 13% do not know if there is a god, and 12% do not believe in a god.
• The Religion Among Scientists in International Context (RASIC) study on 1,581 scientists from the United Kingdom and 1,763 scientists from India, along with 200 interviews, found that 65% of U.K. scientists identified as nonreligious and only 6% of Indian scientists identified as nonreligious. In terms of the Indian scientists, 73% responded that there are basic truths in many religions, 27% said they believe in God, and 38% expressed belief in a higher power of some kind.

Perceptions of conflict between science and religion
Ecklund's study found that most social and natural scientists from 21 American universities did not perceive conflict between science and religion, while 37% did. However, scientists who had experienced limited exposure to religion tended to perceive conflict. The RASIC study found that less than half of both U.K. scientists (38%) and Indian scientists (18%) perceived conflict between religion and science.

Public perceptions of science

Global studies have shown that countries with high religiosity also have strong faith in science, while less religious countries tend to have more skepticism about the impact of science and technology. The United States stands out in this regard, with greater faith in both God and scientific progress. Other research has found that America has more favorable public attitudes towards science than Europe, Russia, and Japan, despite differences in levels of religiosity in these cultures.

• Perceptions of conflict between science and religion: A 2015 Pew Research Center study found that people's perceptions of conflict between science and religion have more to do with their perception of other people's beliefs than their own personal beliefs. For example, the majority of people with a religious affiliation (68%) saw no conflict between their own personal religious beliefs and science. In contrast, the majority of those without a religious affiliation (76%) perceived science and religion to be in conflict. The study also observed that the share of all adults who perceive a conflict between science and their own religious beliefs has declined somewhat in recent years, from 36% in 2009 to 30% in 2014.
• Religious unaffiliated and their views on science: The study also found that people who are not affiliated with any religion, also known as "religiously unaffiliated," often have supernatural beliefs and spiritual practices despite not being affiliated with any religion. Furthermore, only 16% of religiously unaffiliated adults say their own religious beliefs conflict with science.
• Science, religion, and origins: The 2013 MIT Survey on Science, Religion and Origins examined the views of religious people in America on topics like evolution, the Big Bang, and perceptions of conflicts between science and religion. It found that a large majority of religious people see no conflict between science and religion, and only 11% of religious people belong to religions openly rejecting evolution. The study concluded that "mainstream religion and mainstream science are neither attacking one another nor perceiving a conflict." This conciliatory view is shared by most leading science organizations, such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).
• Views of evangelicals and evangelical scientists: A study conducted in collaboration with the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) collected data from 2011 to 2014 on the general public, with a focus on evangelicals and evangelical scientists. Although evangelicals make up only 26% of the US population, nearly 70% of all evangelical Christians do not view science and religion as being in conflict with each other (48% saw them as complementary, and 21% saw them as independent). Similarly, 73% of the general US population saw no conflict between science and religion.

Conclusion

The relationship between science and religion is complex and multifaceted, involving diverse perspectives and approaches throughout history. Different religious traditions have held various views on science, with some integrating scientific advancements into their beliefs while others maintain distinct boundaries. The conflict thesis, which posits an ongoing struggle between science and religion, has been challenged by contemporary historians who emphasize the productive engagements between the two fields. Across different religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Jainism, there have been instances of both harmony and conflict with scientific ideas. Understanding the nuances of these interactions is crucial in appreciating the historical and cultural contexts that have shaped the development of both scientific and religious thought.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Religion in Modern Society: Religion and Science

What is the conflict thesis in the relationship between science and religion?

The conflict thesis posits that there has been an ongoing struggle between science and religion throughout history, with disagreements and clashes between scientific and religious beliefs often presenting them as incompatible with each other. This idea was popularized in the 19th century by John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White.

How do the four perspectives proposed by John Polkinghorne describe the relationship between science and religion?

The four perspectives are: (1) conflict between the disciplines, which highlights disagreements and clashes between scientific and religious beliefs; (2) independence of the disciplines, which considers science and religion as separate domains with their own unique methods and areas of inquiry; (3) dialogue between the disciplines where they overlap, emphasizing areas where science and religion can engage in a constructive conversation; and (4) integration of both into one field, arguing for a unified approach that combines the insights of science and religion.

How has Hinduism historically viewed the relationship between science and religion?

Hinduism has historically valued reason and empiricism, believing that science offers valid but partial knowledge of the world and the universe. The boundary between objective sciences and spiritual knowledge is often blurred in Hinduism, as many Hindu scriptures also serve as ancient scientific manuals and vice versa. Hinduism's scholastic activities and ancient Indian scientific advancements were deeply interconnected, allowing for a seamless integration of scientific and spiritual knowledge.

How has Buddhism historically viewed the relationship between science and religion?

Buddhism and science are often seen as compatible fields of study, as both share certain philosophical and psychological principles. Both Buddhism and modern Western scientific thought emphasize the importance of impartial investigation of nature, with the primary focus being self-study. The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, asserts that when there is a conflict between empirical scientific evidence and traditional Buddhist teachings, the scientific evidence should take precedence.

How has Christianity historically viewed the relationship between science and religion?

Christian philosophers, such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, believed that scriptures could have multiple interpretations in areas where matters were beyond human understanding. This perspective led to the "Handmaiden" tradition, which supported the idea that secular studies of the universe could contribute to a better understanding of scripture. This belief motivated many Christians in the Middle Ages to investigate nature and contributed to the development of science. The relationship between Christianity and science is complex and cannot be reduced to simple harmony or conflict.