Sangam Age: Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Sangam Age: A Significant Period in South Indian History

The Sangam Age holds great importance in the history of South India. The term ‘sangam’ is the Tamil version of the Sanskrit word ‘sangha,’ which refers to a group or association. The Tamil Sangam was an esteemed academy of poets and bards that thrived during three distinct periods and in various locations, all under the patronage of the Pandyan kings of that era.

First Sangam:

• According to tradition, the first Sangam was said to have been attended by gods and legendary sages.
• Its location was Then Madurai, but unfortunately, all the works produced during this period have been lost.

Second Sangam:

• The second Sangam was based in Kapatapuram, another capital of the Sangam Pandyas.
• It saw the participation of numerous poets and the creation of a substantial body of literature.
• However, only one work,Tolkappiyam, an early Tamil grammar text, has survived from this period.

Third Sangam:

• The third Sangam was centered in present-day Madurai.
• Like its predecessors, it produced a vast amount of literature, but only a small portion of it has endured.
• This surviving fraction constitutes the extant body of Sangam literature.

Significance of Sangam Literature:

• The age of the Sangam corresponds to the period to which this literature belongs.
• Sangam literature is a valuable source of information about the political, socio-economic, and cultural conditions of the Tamil country around the beginning of the Christian era.

Sangam Literature and Other Sources

• We possess a wealth of literature from the Sangam period (starting from the 1st century) that includes numerous references to Tamil kings and their kingdoms.
• According to Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Sangam literature, which blends idealism with realism and classical elegance with indigenous strength and industry, is rightly considered to represent the Augustan age of Tamil literature.
• This literature addresses secular topics related to public and social activities such as government, war, charity, trade, worship, and agriculture.
• Among the notable poets and thinkers of the Sangam age are Tolkappiyar,Tiruvalluvar,Ilango Adigal,Sittalai Sattanar,Nakkirar,Kapilar,Paranar,Auvvaiyar,Mangudi Marudanar, and a few others. These figures made significant contributions to the literary history of South India.
• The Sangam literature comprises the earliest Tamil works (such as the Tolkappiyam), the ten poems (Pattupattu), the eight anthologies (Ettutogai), the eighteen minor works (Padinenkilkanakku), and the five epics.
• One of the chief merits of the Sangam works is their unwavering commitment to standards and adherence to literary conventions. This literature provides a vivid depiction of the political and social life of the early Tamils. Various synchronisms found in these works assist in determining specific historical events.
• As noted by V. Kanakasabhai Pillai in his significant work ‘The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago’, the Tamil grammar text Tolkappiyam offers valuable insights into the lifestyle of the people in Tamilakam.
• The literature indicates that although there were frequent wars among different ruling families, this does not imply a lack of peace in Tamil country. Only those specifically engaged in warfare participated in battles, while others pursued agriculture, trade, commerce, art, literature, and other peaceful activities.
• In addition to Sangam literature, there are other source materials that help us understand the cultural history of the early Tamils. Northern Indian sources, such as the Asokan inscriptions, provide the earliest references to the kingdoms of South India, including the regions that are now modern Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, mentioning the Cholas,Pandyas,Satiyaputras, and Keralaputras.
• The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga mentions the defeat of the Tamil confederacy, likely referring to the three crowned kings: the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas, along with their feudatories.

Three Kingdoms of the Sangam Age

The Cheras

• The Cheras were a significant power during the Sangam period, ruling over parts of modern Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• They controlled a narrow strip of land between the sea and the mountains, with their capital at Vanji and important sea ports like Tondi and Musiri.
• The Cheras were known for their trade with the Romans, and their early rulers are mentioned in inscriptions and Sangam literature.
• Udhayan Cheralathan, the first notable Chera king, was a great warrior who defeated the Satavahana king Satakarni II.
• Nedum Cheralathan, known as Imayavaramban, expanded the kingdom and fought against the Cholas. He was influential in promoting Brahmanism and built many temples.
• Cheran Senguttuvan, considered the greatest Chera king, is famous for his military campaigns, including an expedition to the Himalayas. He also introduced the Pattini cult, worshipping Kannagi as the ideal wife.
• After the 2nd century A.D., the power of the Cheras declined, but they were remembered for their patronage of Tamil poets and trade with the Romans.
• The Cheras had prominent ports like Tondi and Musiri, with Muziris being a significant center of Indo-Roman trade.

The Cholas

• The Chola kingdom during the Sangam period extended from modern Thiruchirappalli district in Tamil Nadu to southern Andhra Pradesh. It was located to the northeast of the Pandyan territory, between the Pennar and Vellar Rivers.
• The capital was Uraiyur, with a second capital at Puhar(also called Kaverippumpattinam), which served as the chief port of the Cholas.
• The Chola rulers were known for their military prowess and strong leadership. The first Chola king was Ilamjet Senni, who was wealthy and powerful.
• Karikala Cholan, the greatest Chola king, was known for his military conquests and administrative skills. He achieved significant victories, including the Battle of Venni, where he defeated a confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas, and minor chieftains.
• Karikala was also responsible for major infrastructure projects, such as the construction of Kallanai(an embankment across the Kaveri River) and the founding of Puhar, which became a major trade center.
• Under Karikala’s successors, the Chola power declined, but the family continued to survive with various ups and downs.
• Despite setbacks, the Cholas maintained trade and commerce, and their naval power helped control maritime activities.

The Pandyas

• The Pandyas ruled over southern Tamil Nadu, including modern districts of Madurai,Tirunelveli, and Ramanathapuram. Their capital was Madurai, and their chief port was Korkai.
• The Pandyas were known for their patronage of Tamil poets and scholars, supporting the Tamil Sangams. They had various surnames, including Maran,Valudhi, and Cheliyan.
• Early kings like Nediyon,Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi, and Mudathirumaran set the foundation for the dynasty. Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi was a follower of the Vedic religion and constructed many sacrificial altars.
• The greatest Pandya king was Neduncheliyan, known for his military achievements and for executing Kovalan, leading to Kannagi burning Madurai.
• Another notable Pandya king, Uggira Peruvaludhi, faced challenges during the decline of the Pandyan rule due to invasions by the Kalabhras in the 3rd century A.D.
• The Pandyas were involved in trade with the Roman Empire, sending embassies to Roman emperors. Korkai was a significant center of trade, along with another port Saliyur.
• The influence of the Brahmins was notable during this period, and the Pandyan kings performed Vedic sacrifices.

Local Chieftains in Sangam Age

• In addition to the three major Tamil kingdoms, the Sangam age saw the presence of numerous local chieftains, known as Velirs, who ruled various parts of the Tamil country. These local leaders played a significant role in the political, social, and cultural landscape of the time.
• The Sangam literature provides valuable information about these small chieftains. Among them, the most renowned were a group called the ‘seven patrons’ or ‘kadaiyelu vallalkal’. This group included Pari, Ori, Malayan, Elini, Pegan, Aay, and Nalli. Of these, Pari was the most prominent, ruling over a region called Parambu.
• The local chieftains were known for their patronage of Tamil poets such as Kapilar, Auvvaiyar, Nallathanar, and Perunchithiranar. In return for their support, the poets praised these chieftains for their generosity. The chieftains also played a role in resolving disputes between rulers and made generous donations to poets and bards, similar to the rulers of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.
• These local chieftains, while smaller in scale compared to the major kingdoms, were instrumental in shaping the political, social, and cultural fabric of Tamil society during the Sangam period.

Nature of Sangam Polity

• The Sangam polity was tribal at its core, with the king serving as both the clan leader and military commander. M.G.S. Narayanan views the Sangam monarch as a tribal military chief evolving into a more centralized king with an urban court, legal system, and bureaucracy. The Sangam ruler's military campaigns focused on plunder and destruction rather than territorial conquest. While there were hints of standardized inter-state relations, the polity remained rooted in tribal culture.
• Cattle raiding was a significant aspect of inter-tribal warfare, and there were numerous myths and legends surrounding military heroes and martyrdom. Sangam poems suggest that each king or chieftain had a totem tree and flower, which were displayed with pride. Patrilineal succession was common across the three kingdoms, and royal intermarriages were noted in literature. While territorial loyalty was not prominent, tribal affiliations like the Ayes and Vels were celebrated in Sangam poetry.

Monarchy

Monarchy was the primary administrative institution among the ancient Tamils during the Sangam age. There were two types of rulers:

• Muvendar: The three main rulers—Chera, Chola, and Pandya—were known as the muvendar or the three crowned heads. The Cholas ruled the fertile Kaveri basin and delta, the Pandyas governed the pastoral Mullai region and littoral Neytal region, and the Cheras controlled the hilly Kurunji region in the West.
• Kurunila Mannar: Other rulers, such as Pegan, Ori, Pari, Kari, and Adiyaman, were considered small chieftains.

The territory controlled by each crowned monarch varied over time. Tamil classics often mention local chieftains separately from the muvendar, indicating that some chieftains had powers equal to or independent of the muvendar. These chieftains were traditional political entities with recognized rights and duties, not a result of monarchical weakness.

• Monarchy was the prevailing form of government during the Sangam period, with the king serving as the hereditary head of state. However, the king was not an absolute monarch, as his powers were limited by the existence of five councils or assemblies. The eldest son typically succeeded his father, with the succession right known as murai mudal kattil. Younger princes had specific titles, and the right of succession was called tayam or urimai.
• The king had essential functions, including learning, performing sacrifices, giving presents, protecting subjects, and punishing the wicked. Notable sacrifices included Rajasuyam and Ashvamedha. The king was viewed as a divine figure, with symbols of royal dignity such as garlands and the royal umbrella. The people expected the king to be strong, uphold the law, and ensure the welfare of the subjects, maintaining peace and order in the land.

The Royal Court and Council

The royal court was the center of the highest and most important administration. It was made up of the king and his council, who were chosen representatives of the people, including chief priests, physicians, and astrologers. These councils were responsible for protecting the rights and privileges of the people.

Roles of the Council Members:

• Priest: Responsible for overseeing religious ceremonies.
• Physicians: In charge of the health of the ruler and his subjects.
• Astrologers: Tasked with determining auspicious times for public ceremonies and predicting important events.

The King’s Court:

• The king’s court was called Avai and was also known as irukkai, olakkam, or vettavai. It could also be referred to as arasavai.
• The king and queen attended court in elaborate customs and expensive ornaments. The scepter, white umbrella, and throne distinguished and elevated the king's position in court.

The Role of the Council:

• Although the council members were supposed to advise the king, they often received orders from him. However, they did provide advice when necessary.
• There are instances in Sangam literature where learned individuals warned the king against heavy taxation and excessive warfare.

The Royal Court's Authority:

• The royal court did not make laws; every command from the king was considered law. The king was the guardian of the law, respecting conventions and usages.
• The royal court typically convened in the capital city of the kingdom.

Post-Sangam Period:

• During this time, the king was assisted by councils known as Aimperunkulu and Enperayam.
• These councils are mentioned in the post-Sangam texts Silappathikaram and Manimekalai.
• The texts provide detailed descriptions of the constitution, functions, and powers of these councils.

The Aimperunkulu:

• According to Nachinarkkiniar, the Aimperunkulu consisted of:
• Amaichchar (Ministers)
• Purohitar (Chief Priests)
• Senapati (Army Chiefs)
• Dutar (Envoys)
• Orrar (Spies)

The Enperayam:

• Nachinarkkiniar lists the members of the Enperayam as:
• Karanathiyalvar
• Karumakarar
• Kanakasutram
• Kadaikappalar
• Nagaramandar
• Padaitalaivar
• Yanai Veerar
• Ivuli Maravar

References to Narperumkulu, the four great groups, are found in the Maduraikkanchi.

Administration during the Sangam Age

• The king was the central figure of administration, known by titles like Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan, or Iraivan. While hereditary monarchy was common, disputes over succession and civil wars occurred.
• The ‘conquering king’ ideal was embraced, and the king's birthday (Perunal) was celebrated annually.
• The king, as the fountainhead of power, was assisted by a large body of officials divided into five assemblies (Aimperumkulu):
• Amaichchar (Minister)
• Purohitar (Priest)
• Senapatiyar (Army Chief)
• Dutar (Envoy)
• Orrar (Spies)

Amaichcher (Minister):

• The amaichcher or minister was a crucial official overseeing various administrative units of the state.
• The king employed multiple ministers, whose roles were primarily advisory.
• Ministers were present in court to provide counsel on matters of concern.
• Thiruvalluvar, in his Thirukkural, refers to ministers as Amaichchar and Ulai Irundar, while Kadiyalur Uruthiram Kannanar calls them Amaichchar and Sutram.
• Post-Sangam works like Silappathikaram and Thirukkural mention ministers of various administrative units, highlighting their reputation for honesty and wise counsel.
• There was no specific community from which ministers were chosen.

Purohitar (Priest):

• The Purohitar of the king's court, known as Asan or Karuma Vinainan or Andanars, were respected figures in Sangam society.
• All rulers had Purohitars in their courts, seeking their counsel in emergencies.
• One Chola king, after offending a Purohitar, promptly expressed regret, and the poet appreciated the prince's character.

Senapatiyar (Army Chief):

• The Senapatiyar or Senapati was a key official responsible for controlling and administering the state’s military forces.
• The army under his command included infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots, all crucial for the state's defense.
• The Senapati rallied the army and led them into battle, displaying great courage and resilience.
• Senapatis were known for their bravery, often disregarding personal danger, even in the face of arrows or elephant charges.

Dutar (Envoy):

• The Dutar or ambassador represented one king in the court of another.
• Qualities of an ideal Dutar included pleasing manners, noble lineage, kindness, expressiveness, good education, and courage.
• Dutars were particularly active during wartime.
• Sangam literature provides instances of Dutars, such as Auvvai’s mission to Adiyaman Neduman Anji.
• Ambassadors were not permanently assigned to foreign courts but were chosen as needed.

Orrar (Spies):

• Orrar or spies were employed in large numbers by the king for espionage.
• Espionage, known as vevu or orru, was utilized both in wartime and peacetime.
• Spies provided crucial information, especially from enemy ranks.
• Spies were rewarded for valuable information, and sometimes Dutars also acted as spies.

Administrative Division

• During the Sangam age, kingdoms were divided into administrative units such as mandalam, nadu, valanadu, and ur.
• The mandalam was the entire kingdom, with major divisions like Chola,Pandya, and Chera mandalams.
• Nadu(province) was below the mandalam, typically administered by hereditary chiefs.
• Ur was a village, categorized as big (perur), small (sirrur), or old (mudur). Coastal towns were called pattinam, with Kaverippumpattinam being the most notable.
• Commercial and political centers included Puhar, Uraiyur, Korkai, Madurai, Musiri, Vanji or Karur, and Kanchipuram, with detailed accounts of Puhar, Madurai, and Kanchipuram.
• The descriptions of Madurai in Maduraikkanchi and Puhar in Pattinappalai are similar and stereotyped.

Village Administration:

• The village, or ur, was the fundamental administrative unit, managing its own affairs.
• Village affairs were handled by manram(general assembly),podiyil,ambalam, and uravai.
• The manram and podiyil were places for local business transactions, often under a tree.
• Podiyil was a common place, while ambalam was a small building on a raised platform.
• These village institutions had the authority to arbitrate petty disputes and were not subject to higher officials.
• Village elders, chosen for their age and influence, held significant power in dispute resolution.

Revenue Administration:

• In the Sangam age, various taxes were collected as revenue for the king’s private and public expenditures.
• Officials were appointed to oversee revenue affairs, and taxes were levied according to customs.
• Land revenue was the chief source of income, with the land tax called irai or karai.
• Land tax was paid in cash or kind, with measures like ma and veli for land and kalam for grain.
• Water charges were levied for irrigation, and other sources of income included tolls, customs duties, tributes, booty from expeditions, and profits from forests, fisheries, and elephants.
• Tolls and customs were collected at sea ports, trunk roads, and kingdom frontiers.
• Roads and highways were maintained to prevent robbery and smuggling, with tax units called variyam and officers collecting taxes called Variyar.
• Pattinappalai mentions custom officials at the seaport of Puhar.

Administration of Justice

• The king held all secular power and was the source of justice, aided by ministers and Purohitars.
• The king’s court served as a court of justice, where complaints were heard and cases decided.
• Justice was administered in a place called arakkalam, with the king’s court being the highest authority.
• Learned men assisted the king in judicial matters, and village courts, or manram, handled local disputes.
• Criminal cases relied on witnesses, and trial by ordeal was practiced.
• Punishments were severe, including death for theft, with imprisonment and fines being lesser penalties.
• Despite its cruelty, this system was effective in maintaining order and deterring offenses.

Warfare:

• Warfare was a significant activity for the ruling classes, often starting with cattle-fighting as a pretext.
• Kings maintained armies and necessary weapons, with advanced methods of attack and defense.
• The army, including chariots,elephants,cavalry, and infantry, was essential to royal power.
• Elephants were crucial in warfare, and horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom.
• Monuments were erected for fallen soldiers, and Kavalmaram or Kadimaram, a tree symbolizing power, was also a practice.

Conclusion

• The political history of ancient Tamilakam begins with the Sangam period, where the Chera,Chola, and Pandya empires ruled from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D.
• These dynasties, with their unique culture and language, contributed to some of the oldest literature in the world.
• The three kingdoms were in constant rivalry for dominance until the Khalabhras displaced them in the 3rd century A.D.
• The Khalabhras, described as ‘evil rulers’, disrupted the traditional order and established a stronghold in Tamil land.
• From about 300 A.D. to 600 A.D., there is a lack of information about Tamil land, interpreted as a social crisis.
• The disappearance of characteristic institutions during this period is noteworthy.